226 
Distribution of Hookworms 
Unfortunately there were no Malays from Borneo, Flores or Sumbava in 
our treatment groups, but the evidence as it stands, points distinctly to the 
supposition that the Malay people living in Sumatra (their ancient home?), 
Malay Peninsula, Java, Celebes and all the other islands of Indonesia were 
originally infested with N. americanus whilst A. duodenale became super¬ 
imposed upon this infection in certain localities and islands through the 
migration thither of an alien ethnic stock or stocks infested with a much 
higher percentage of A. duodenale than that harboured by the autoch¬ 
thones. 
From evidence to be presented there can be no doubt but that A. duodenale 
was introduced into Indonesia from the continent of Asia and in sufficiently 
large numbers to have become well implanted in the people and soil of mid 
and East Java and of Madura, Lombok, Timor and Bali as well. 
What was the ethnic source of the migrants? 
It was almost certainly from some region north of about 20 c N. latitude 
and may have been North Indian, that is from above the delta of the Ganges 
or thereabouts, Upper Burmah or Assam or it may have been from China. 
Regular commercial relations had been maintained between India and 
Java since about 700 b.c., according to Oldham 1 . Arab and Chinese mer¬ 
chants have been coming to Indonesia for centuries and from these three 
sources the soil of Indonesia undoubtedly has been seeded with A. duodenale. 
But to account for the high ancylostome index encountered in mid and 
East Java, Madura, Lombok and Timor we must assume the migration of 
larger numbers than would be represented by a few traders and sailors. 
A volume of people corresponding to the respective numbers of the two 
species of hookworms in the ancylostome index has been necessary to produce 
the index as we find it. 
That is to say, a thousand migrants with an ancylostome index of 75 % 
when mixed with a Malay population eight times as large with an ancylostome 
index of nil will in time yield a mixed population with an ancylostome index 
of 8-3 %. 
Buddhism is said to have reached the Indian Archipelago about 223 b.c. 
and there are Javan traditions that about 300 b.c. thousands of families 
from N.W. India and from the Kling coast were established in Java. 
Java and possibly other islands in Indonesia were subjected to Hindu 
domination for 14 centuries or up to the 15th century a.d. The temples date 
from about 600 a.d. This was followed by a Mohammedan invasion. Portions 
of Indonesia undoubtedly became seeded with A. duodenale at this time. 
It seems probable that the present ancylostome formula of the mid- 
Javanese resulted from this Hindu invasion, for the high ancylostome index 
is found in those districts in Java where the Hindu culture, as evidenced by 
the presence of temples or their ruins, was most intense, that is to say in mid 
and East Java. 
1 Qldhani (1905), The Serpent and the Sun, London. 
