Freitas and Francisco • REPRODUCTION OF THE YELLOWISH PIPIT 
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T\BLE 2. Average values, range, and sample sizes (;i) of breeding life history traits of Yellowish Pipit and northern 
temperate congeners from Europe and North America, and their relerences. 
Species 
Clinch size (range) 
Incubation period (range) 
Nestling period (range) 
Reference 
Yellowish Pipit 
3.05 ± 0.4 (2-4) 
n =21 
13.03 (13-14) 
n = 10 
14.5 (14-17) 
n = 11 
Present work 
Sprague's Pipit 
4.8 ± 0.84 (2-6) 
n = 57 
13.4 (12-15) 
n = 9 
12.1 (11-14) 
n = 39 
Davis (2003, 2009) 
American Pipit 
4.7 ± 0.7 (3-6) 
n = 87 
14.4 (not provided) 
n = 9 
14.4 (not provided) 
n = 41 
Vcrbeek (1970) 
Meadow Pipit 
5.4 r 0.58 (4—6) 
13(13) 
12.3 (12-13) 
Davies (1958) 
n = 23 
n = 2 
n — 6 
(northern Europe) 
4.3 0.64 (3-6) 
13(11-15) 
12.3 (10-14) 
Coulson (1956) 
n = 246 
n = 19 
■c 
II 
C 
(England) 
insects at the tip of their beaks, which were offered 
intact to the young. Both parents provisioned 
nestlings, often at similar rates, arriving near the 
nest together and feeding the young one after the 
other. Young were provisioned on average 13.3 ± 
7.9 limes/hr (range = 3-35) in 29 hrs of obser¬ 
vation at 11 nests and feeding recesses lasted 3.S ± 
3.54 min (range = 0.05-24.4, n - 346). Both 
males and females were observed removing fecal 
sacs directly from the young, which were either 
swallowed or dropped a few meters from nests, 
Hedging was synchronous in 13 of 14 nests, and 
young departed from nests with well developed tail 
and wings and Dying well, differently from many 
altricial young passerines that leave the nests 
before they can Dy. Nestling periods of 26 young 
from 11 different nests were 13 ( n = 3), 14 (n = 
12). 15 (n = 9) or 17 days (n = 2) (14.5 ± 1.0). 
Nests were not reused. 
Three of 28 nests for which fate was known were 
abandoned in late construction stage (11%). two 
were abandoned in the incubation stage (7%), two 
were predated during the incubation stage (7%), 
two were predated during the nestling stage (7%), 
; ind 19successfully fledged young (68%). Three of 
55 eggs that were not predated or abandoned were 
infertile (5.4%). each in a different nest, Nests for 
which we had evidence of human predation (i.e., 
during grass cutting) were not considered. The 
average nest exposure period was 27.5 days 
1 13 days of incubation and 14.5 days of nestling 
stage). Estimated nest daily survival rate using the 
null model of constant DSR was 0.995 with a 95% 
confidence interval (Cl) of 0.979-0.999. Estimated 
overall nesting success was 87%' (95%’ Cl, 56— 
97%) (419 nest days and 4 nest failures). 
Two models of DSR received substantial 
support (AAlCc < 2). The best-fit model was 
S(nest age), being 1.4 AICc units better than the 
second best model, S(nest age + date). These 
models together accounted for 57% of the data 
variation (vv, values = 0.38 and 0.19), and the null 
model of constant DSR received less support 
(AAICY = 2.3. and w, = 0.12). The S(nest age) 
model indicated a negative correlation between 
DSR and nest age (|i - -0.245, Cl = -0.553- 
0.062), and the Sfnest age + date) model indicated 
DSR was negatively correlated with both nest age 
(p = -0.227, Cl = -0.544-0.089) and date ((3 = 
-0.043, Cl = -0.146-0.059). Model averaging 
revealed DSRs of 0.999 (Cl = 0.994-1.004) in 
early, 0.999 (Cl = 0.993-1.003) in middle, and 
0.433 (Cl = 0.006-0.989) in late breeding season. 
Comparisons of breeding life history traits ol 
Yellowish Pipit and northern temperate congeners 
(Sprague’s. Meadow, and American pipits) varied 
(Table 2). The clutch si/e of Yellowish Pipit was 
significantly smaller when compared to Sprague s 
Pipit (/ = -12.5. P = 0.000), American Pipit (t = 
- 14.4, P = 0.000), and England (t = -13.4, P = 
0.000), and northern Europe populations (l = 
_ |5 9 . p = 0.000) of Meadow Pipits. Incubation 
periods of our study population and England 
populations of Meadow Pipits did not diltei 
significantly {t = 0.33, P = 0.74), hut the nestling 
period was significantly shorter for Meadow 
Pipits U = 6.45. P = 0.000). 
DISCUSSION 
The breeding seasons of central-south Brazilian 
birds follow a general pattern, beginning in 
August/September (at the end of the dry season), 
reaching the highest peak from October to 
December (early and middle rainy season), and 
diminishing or ending in January-February (late 
rainy season) (Davis 1945, Sick 1997, Piratelli 
