TABLE 2. Identities, origin, sample period, number of locations, minimum, maximum, and mean elevation (± 95% Cl) by season of 10 male Nene with satellite transmitters on 
Hawai'i Island. Nene originated from Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (HFNWR) or Big Island Country Club golf course (BICC). Dashes indicate no data during a season. 
482 
THE WILSON JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY • Vol 124, No. 3. September 2012 
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young in the uplands where it is found in summer, 
but such is not the fact. The greater number, 
probably all. leave the upper grounds beginning 
early in the fall, and resort to lower altitudes, from 
about 1.200 feet [—360 m| downwards." Perkins 
(1903: 437) also reported: "As is well-known the 
Goose, like many other native birds, changes its 
abode at different seasons of the year, being no 
doubt chiefly influenced by the food-supply. In 
the summer months it affects the open upland 
region, which is covered with a scrubby vegeta¬ 
tion and traversed by many lava flows, such for 
instance as parts of the plateau between the three 
great mountains of Hawaii, at an elevation of four 
or five thousand feet [ - 1.220-1.525 m| above the 
sea." 
Two breeding subpopulations of Hawaii Island 
None have resumed traditional movement patterns 
similar to those reported by early naturalists 
(Henshaw 1902. Perkins 1903, Smith 1952). 
There was a strong pattern of full and partial 
altitudinal migration; this pattern was opposite 
that of many tropical bird species which typically 
move from higher elevation breeding ranges to 
lower elevation non-breeding ranges (Loiselleand 
Blake 1991, Johnson and Maclean 1994. Ornelas 
and Arizmcndi 1995, Hobson et al. 2003. Boyle 
2010). Nene spent the breeding and molting 
seasons at lower elevation areas from September 
to April, and moved to higher elevation areas 
during the non-breeding season in May to August. 
Previous research found no evidence ot any 
regular migration in a subpopulation of Nene in 
the Kflauea region of Hawai'i Volcanoes National 
Park ( Woog and Black 2001), which had limited 
interchange with the subpopulations we studied. 
We predict that pair bonds will form between 
young Nene from Hakalau Forest NTVVR and BICC 
w hile at non-breeding locations of Kahuku and 
Klpuka ‘Ainahou, thereby reinforcing both move¬ 
ment routes and contributing to greater genetic 
exchange between these breeding subpopulations. 
However, it is unlikely Nene will colonize other 
lower elevation grassland nesting sites without 
translocation because of strong natal philopatry 
and site fidelity (Banko et al. 1999). 
Altitudinal migration is well documented in 
continental tropical bird species, although rarely 
in island species (Berthold 2001. Boyle 2008, Cox 
2010). Typically, altitudinal migration involves 
annual return movements of forest-dwelling birds 
from lower elevation non-breeding areas to higher 
elevation breeding sites (Loiselle and Blake 1991, 
