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THE WILSON JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY • Vol 124. No. 3. September 2012 
TABLE I. Laughing Gull breeding records in New York State during 1978-2007 not associated with the nesting 
colony in Jamaica Bay. New York. 
Year 
Location iCoordinates! 
County 
Number of nests 
Source 
1978 
Line Island complex (40 
36' N. 73 36' W> 
Nassau 
1 
Buckley et al. (1978) 
1990 
North Cinder Island (40 
36' N, 73 29' W) 
Nassau 
4 
Sommers et al. (1994) 
1991 
North Cinder Island (40 
36’ N, 73 29' W) 
Nassau 
4 
Sominers et al. (1994) 
1995 
Young's Island (40 55 
N. 73- 09' W) 
Suffolk 
2 
Sommers et al. (2001) 
1998 
Carter's Island (40 45' ] 
8. 72 48' W) 
Suffolk 
5 
Sommers et al. (2001) 
2007 
Tobay Marsh Islands (40 
37’ N. 73 25' W) 
Nassau 
4 
S. P. Sinkevich. pers. comm. 
annual increases of 4.5 and 5.8%, respectively 
(Sauer et al. 2011). 
The presence of adult Laughing Gulls in 
breeding plumage within apparently suitable 
habitat is not a direct indication of the presence 
of a nesting colony. Dolbeer and Bernhardt (2003) 
reported 46% of 2-year-old and 12% of ^3-year- 
old female Laughing Gulls in breeding plumage 
showed no evidence of reproduction. Non-breed¬ 
ing gulls could be using salt marsh habitats for 
foraging during summer months. The presence of 
hatching-year Laughing Gulls on Long Island 
during late summer and early fall does not 
necessarily indicate the presence of breeding, as 
northward movements prior to fall migration have 
been noted (Burger and Galli 1986. Belant and 
Dolbeer 1993). 
Salt marsh habitats on Long Island appear to 
provide suitable nesting habitat for Laughing 
Gulls. Large, open tidal areas dominated by 
Spartina and lacking woody vegetation and 
common reed occurred in numerous locations 
along the coast of Long Island. However, the 
reason(s) why Laughing Gulls are not nesting on 
Long Island in areas outside of Jamaica Bay are 
unknown. Herring Gulls (Lams argentatus ) might 
be a problem within areas along the Long Island 
shoreline where this species is nesting, as 
breeding Laughing Gulls have been displaced by 
Herring Gulls (Burger and Slhsler 1978, Burger 
1996). Human disturbance and mammalian pred¬ 
ators could also be reducing the quality of salt 
marsh habitats for Laughing Gulls and other 
colonial seabirds (Burger and Shisler 1980, 
Buckley and Buckley 2000). 
Erosion and degradation of salt marshes is a 
significant problem along the east coast of the 
United States (Gornitz et al. 2002. Hartig et al 
2002. Bogeret al. 2012). Loss of coastal wetland 
habitats impacts a variety of colonial nesting 
waterbirds, including Laughing Gulls (Erwin et al 
2006, Brinker et al. 2007). Degradation of salt 
marsh habitat along Long Island could negatively 
impact the existing nesting colony in Jamaica 
Bay. and reduce the number and quality of other 
potential nesting locations. 
Common reed commonly invades salt marsh 
habitats along the Atlantic Coast and in wetland 
areas along the Great Lakes, converting native 
plant communities into dense monotypic stands 
and altering the structure and function of these 
areas (Roman el al. 1984, Silliman and Bertness 
2004). Expansion of common reed into wetland 
habitats decreases bird diversity and negatively 
impacts marsh-nesting songbirds and waterbirds 
(Benoit and Askins 1999. Wells et al. 2008). The 
invasion of salt marsh habitats along Long Island 
by common reed is an important concern, 
reducing available nesting habitat for Laughing 
Gulls (New York Natural Heritage Program 
2011 ). 
The Jamaica Buy colony contains >99% of the 
Laughing Gulls nesting in New York State. This 
colony is influenced by an integrated gull .'trike 
management program at John F. Kennedy Inter¬ 
national Airport (Washburn et al. 2009), severe 
erosion and tidal flooding of salt marshes in 
Jamaica Bay (Hartig et al. 2002). and high levels 
of pollutants and contaminants in Jamaica Bay 
waters (Seidemann 1991). The nesting colony of 
Laughing Gulls remained viable and relatively 
stable in size during 2000-2008 despite the 
removal of >88.000 Laughing Gulls during 
1991—2008 as pan of the integrated gull strike 
management program (Washburn et al. 2008. 
Washburn et al. 2009), and concurrent severe 
habitat loss due to tidal flooding and marsh 
erosion (Gornitz et al. 2002, Hartig et al. -001 
Bogeret al. 2012). However, one extreme weathei 
event (e.g.. hurricane) could completely degrade 
the salt marshes in Jamaica Bay (Gornitz et al 
2002) and remove this nesting site for Laughing 
