HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 
11 
excellence,’ was the rose ; this was trained in trellises or pergolas, or in beds in the ‘rosarium.’ It 
was the flower principally used in the making of garlands, and the expression ‘ sub rosa bears 
testimony to this fact. The demand for roses was so excessive that they are said to have been 
supplied from Egypt specially packed for transit. They also came from Passtum, and the lowlands 
bordering the Gulf of Salerno, where two crops were produced annually. Besides the rose, the 
principal flowers cultivated were the narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris, poppy, amaranth, hyacinth, 
anemone, periwinkle, convolvulus, cornflower, cyclamen, acanthus, cranesbill, and probably the 
chrysanthemum and flowering shrubs such as the oleander, the flowering willow, and the rhodo¬ 
dendron, and many of the flowering fruit-trees, including the gorgeous pomegranate. Perfumes were 
derived from specially cultivated flowers and from simple, burnt laurel, verbena and juniper. As 
cultivation and luxury advanced, the use of Sicilian crocus, myrrh, costum speciosum, and cinnamon 
became generally prevalent. 
In one part of the villa would be the fruit garden, with trees arranged in a quincunx. 1 Apples, 
pears, quinces, pomegranates, nuts, almonds and figs, would be among the fruits under cultivation. 
As the culture of fruit became more popular, rich amateurs vied with each other in producing fine 
varieties. Lucullus introduced the cherry on his return from his campaign against Mithridates. The 
honey-apple or melimela is frequently mentioned by Martial; it was an early variety and did not last 
long. Pliny mentions no less than thirty varieties of pears and numerous kinds of plums. Vegetables 
under cultivation included cabbages, onions, peas, and artichokes, fennel, lettuce, cucumber, endive, 
and wild asparagus ; beans were considered fit only for peasants and gladiators. In or near the kitchen 
garden would be the apiaries, which were considered absolutely necessary to every large establishment. 
Bee-keeping as an industry was most assiduously followed. Varro also describes minutely the 
construction of places for the preservation of snails and dormice for eating purposes. The same 
author gives an interesting description of the fish and duck ponds of a villa. 
The principal features of the villas, which we have already described, were to be found on 
a much grander scale in the gigantic imperial palaces, though from their huge proportions these 
frequently lack the unity of design which characterised the smaller establishments. The stupendous 
country villa of Hadrian is said to have occupied a total area of over seven square miles. It was 
situated to the south of Tivoli, on a ridge running north-east and south-west; to-day it is but little more 
than a heap of ruins, which have been very ably described and illustrated by Gusman and others. 
The villa was commenced about twelve years before Hadrian gave up the administration of public 
affairs to his adopted son, and the Emperor doubtless chose this spot as one where he could enjoy his 
retirement in sight of, yet away from the noise of, Rome. It was his favourite villa, though he was 
not destined to enjoy its pleasures for many years after his retirement. The villa consisted principally 
of a vast collection of buildings almost town-like in their variety, and the gardens were mostly 
confined to courtyards and terraces commanding glorious views over the Vale of Tempe, and in the 
i Quincunx is the name given to a mode of planting in rows, by which the plants in the one row are always opposed to the blanks in the other, 
so that when a plot of ground is planted in this way, the plants appear in rows in four directions. 
