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MOORE’S RURAL NEW-YORKER: 
A WEEKLY JOURNAL, DEVOTED TO 
Agriculture, Horticulture, Mechanic Arts and Sci¬ 
ence, Education, Rural and Domestic Economy, 
General Intelligence, the Markets, &c., &c. 
CONDUCTED BY D. D. T. MOORE, 
ASSISTED BY 
J. H. BIXBY, L. WETHERELL, and H. C. WHITE. 
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and Variety of Contents. Its conductors earnestly labor 
to make it a Reliable Guide on the important Practical 
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ests it advocates. It embraces more Agricultural, Horti¬ 
cultural, Scientific, Mechanical, Literary and News Matter 
—interspersed with many appropriate and handsome en¬ 
gravings—than any other paper published in this Country. 
For Terms, ice... see last page. 
PROGRESS AND IltIDKOVKITIENT. 
“BALDWIN THEORY OF MANURES.” 
IN TWO NUMBERS. — NO. I. 
Eds. Rural New-Yorker: — A some¬ 
what singular theory in relation to manur s, 
has been put forth through the Plow » 
Loom <k Anvil, by Dr. R. T. Baldwin, of 
Winchester, Ya. His views are embraced 
in twelve different propositions; and in in¬ 
troducing them to his readers, the editor of 
the work referred to, says:—“ Should the 
theory mentioned he finally established, the 
discovery will constitute a very striking 
epoch in agricultural annals;” that is to say, 
it is very important, if true. 
The substance of this theory is, that 
shade is equivalent to manure, or in the 
language of the inventor, that “ all soils 
may be made exceedingly fertile by shade 
alone.” But a more distinct idea will be 
obtained of the theory, by a perusal of the 
propositions above mentioned; and I there¬ 
fore take the liberty of submitting them to 
the attention of your readers, accompanied 
by some remarks designed to elicit truth in 
regard to the subjects involved. 
“1st. Of the various changes which vegetable 
and animal substances undergo, during their de¬ 
composition, the product of the one only wltich has 
proved to be the aliment of plants is the residue of 
putrefaction.” 
It is presumed that the term putrefac¬ 
tion is here used in the sense in which it is 
commonly received, —that it signifies “a 
natural process, by which animal and veg¬ 
etable substances are disorganized and re¬ 
duced either to their original elements, or 
to much more simple compounds.”* It will 
be noticed that the “ residue of putrefac¬ 
tion,” is all that is here admitted to con¬ 
stitute the “aliment of plants.” We are 
further told, as will be seen by the ninth 
proposition, that “ the value of manure ma¬ 
terially depends upon the 'perfection of the 
putrefactive process.” 
The plain import of this language is, 
that there is nothing of any value as ma¬ 
nure, in animal or vegetable subtances, ex¬ 
cept what remains after they have been 
subjected to the most thorough putrefactive 
process. Let us, then, try the soundness of 
this theory by an example:—Take the car¬ 
cass of a horse, place it in a basin formed 
of solid rock, and after it k jias undergone 
thorough putrefaction, see what remains as 
a “residue.” It will probably bear about 
the same proportion to the weight of the 
original carcass, as the ashes would have 
done, if the decomposition had been effect¬ 
ed by fire. All the organic portion, except 
that which the bones contain, will have 
been resolved into their original elements; 
its carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, 
will have again become parts of the atmos¬ 
phere. What, then, becomes of the am¬ 
monia, (a compound of nitrogen and hydro¬ 
gen,) which chemists teach, and which 
practice proves, is highly valuable in feed¬ 
ing plants ? The carbon, too, which consti- 
* Webster. 
tuted the greatest proportion of the carcass, 
is all wasted. This would have been of 
great importance in supplying the “aliment 
of plants.” Thus Prof. Johnston says:— 
“ Carbonaceous matter contributes its aid in 
increasing the produce of the soil, by sup¬ 
plying, either directly or indirectly, a portion 
of the necessary food of plants. The im¬ 
mediate and visible effect of different veg¬ 
etable substances in the same state is meas¬ 
ured by the relative quantities of nitrogen 
they contain—their permanent effects by 
the relative quantities of inorganic and of 
carbonaceous matters.” 
“When the putrefaction of a vegetable 
substance is at an end,” says C. W. John¬ 
son, “ the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen of 
which it was composed, are gone, and noth¬ 
ing remains but the earths and salts with 
which the purely vegetable matters were 
once combined in the plant. The ashes 
which are left when putrefaction ceases, are 
in fact nearly the same as those left after 
combustion.” 
But let us go on to other propositions. 
“ 2d. Each change is a distinct and peculiar 
chemical process, differing not only in the cir¬ 
cumstances requisite to produce it, but also in the 
nature and chemical composition of each product. 
“ 3d. The value of each product depends very 
materially, upon the attention paid to the circum¬ 
stances necessary to generate each peculiar pro¬ 
cess. This is known to bo true with regard to the 
vinous and acetous fermentations, and is equally 
true with regard to every other. 
“4th. That a close, cool, dark, and damp loca¬ 
tion, with a contact of air, is indispensable to the 
generation of the putrefactive process. All organ¬ 
ic substances experience this chango only when 
thus located. 
“5th. No substance whatsoever will undergo 
the putrefactive process, when exposed to heat, 
light, and a free circulation of air.” 
In the fourth proposition we are told that 
a “ close and cool ” situation “ is indispen¬ 
sable to the generation of the putrefactive 
process;” and in the fifth proposition, it is 
asserted that “ no substance will undergo 
the putrefactive process, when exposed to 
heat, light, and a free circulation of air!" 
Heat and cold are somewhat arbitrary 
terms, and do not, of themselves convey any 
definite idea of temperature. It is generally 
understood, however, that warmth, not 
“ coolness,” is favorable to putrefaction, and 
decomposiiion in general. The reverse of 
this is assumed by Dr. Baldwin, and also 
that both “ heat and light ” are unfavorable 
to putrefaction, and that a “close and dark” 
situation is “ indispensable ” for the process. 
. These are certainly novel ideas and op¬ 
posed to all that has heretofore been deem¬ 
ed truth, on this subject. Hence it has 
been laid down, that “ a temperature be¬ 
tween GO 0 and 80°, a due degree of hu¬ 
midity, and free access of air, are the cir¬ 
cumstances under which putrefaction pro¬ 
ceeds most rapidly.”* It is well known 
that putrefaction cannot go on at a temper¬ 
ature below the freezing point, or 32°, and 
that it takes place very slowly at 45°; that 
it is prevented by a total exclusion of air, 
and that it generally proceeds with greater 
rapidity under the influence of light, than 
in darkness—the chemical rays, as they are 
called, tending to decomposition. 
“6th. That decay, or eremacausis is a distinct 
chemical procoss, differing essentially from the 
putrefactive, in the circumstances which produce 
it, ns well as in the quantity and quality of the 
product, which is invariably destitute of fertilizing 
virtues.” 
What is the essential difference in the 
chemical processes of eremacausis and pu¬ 
trefaction, here spoken of? Liebig defines 
eremacausis as being “ the act of gradu¬ 
al combination of the combustible elements 
of a body with the oxygen of the air; a 
slow combustion or oxydation. Eremacau- 
* C. W. Johnson. 
sis is a kind of putrefaction, differing from 
the common process of putrefaction, only in 
the part which the oxygen of the air plays 
in the transformations of the body in de¬ 
cay.” Again lie observes — “ The ere¬ 
macausis of such substances [animal and 
vegetable] is a decomposition analogous to 
the putrefaction of azotised bodies.”* 
If animal or vegetable substances are 
buried in the soil, or mixed with a large 
quantity of earthy or carbonaceous matters, 
they undergo decomposition by this pro¬ 
cess of “'slow combustion or oxydation,” 
called eremacausis. Now what practical 
farmer ever supposed that plants derived 
no “aliment ” from these substances when 
placed in such circumstances? No farmer 
of common sense supposes that because his 
manures decompose slowly, his crops derive 
no benefit from them. Upon what founda¬ 
tion, then, rests the assertion that “ the pro¬ 
duct of eremacausis is invariably destitute 
of fertilizing virtues?” 
“7th. Putrefaction reay be considered the ulti¬ 
mate result of vegetable and animal decomposi- 
tions.because it forms the only product incapable of 
any other chemical change, and is conseqnently 
indestructible.” 
Is “ putrefaction ” really “ the ultimate 
result of vegetable and animal decomposi 
tions,” or a process by which such results 
are in some degree obtained ? With what 
reason can it be said that putrefaction 
“forms the only product incapable of any 
other chemical change ?” Why is its “ pro¬ 
duct ” more incapable of change than the 
products of combustion?—though the re¬ 
mark cannot be properly applied in either 
case, because all substances are capable of 
endless change, or continuous decomposition 
and recomposition. 
Troy, N. Y., 1831. A. D. W. 
*“ Organic Chemistry.” 
UPON WHAT DOES MAN SUBSIST ? 
IN FOUR NUMBERS — NO. II. 
In continuing our remarks on this sub¬ 
ject we quote Dr. Liebig, who calls albu¬ 
men, fibrine and caseine, the exclusive ma¬ 
terials of nutrition, or subsistence; they 
cannot be replaced by any other substance 
—if withheld, starvation ensues. The sub¬ 
stances, devoid of nitrogen, furnish the ma¬ 
terials for respiration. Comparing, says 
Schlelden, these requisitions of the animal 
body, with the contents of plants that serve 
man and other animals with food, we find 
in the organs of all these plants a certain 
amount of albumen dissolved in the juices. 
In the grains, gluten is fuund, resembling, 
says Liebig, a mixture of gelatine and an¬ 
imal fibrine—in peas and beans legumine, 
the same with animal caseine. Legumine 
and gluten, are found in the cells of nearly 
all plants. 
He further says that the second class 
which includes the material for respiration, 
are widely distributed throughout the veg¬ 
etable world. There are three groups of 
plants which furnish nutrition, or nutritive 
substances for man. The first group, in¬ 
cluding cereals, pulses, potatoes, yams, sago, 
palms, <fec., furnish starch. The second, 
:ncludes the fruits rich in sugar and gum 
—also many of the kitchen vegetables._ 
The third consists of the oleaginous ker¬ 
nels of various fruits, as the cocoa-nut, the 
Chilian pine-nut, Brazilian-nut, and other 
kinds of nuts too numerous to mention here. 
There are also many vegetable beverages 
which man uses, as wine, cider, beer and 
ardent spirits. Ihe art of making these I 
drinks which produce drunkenness has been J 
known to man in every age of his history. : 
The Mexicans have their pulque or maguey 
wine, the Chilians, their palm wine, the in¬ 
habitants of Orinoco and the Amazon, use 
a beverage made of maize, the Tartars their 
kumiss, prepared from mares’ milk—all 
; containing the intoxicating principle which 
! is the product of the fermentation of sugar 
and starch. 
The Peruvian induces a dreamy stupor, 
by chewing cocoa leaves; the Siberian, by 
the use of the Amanita muscatia, a genus 
of mushrooms; the Southern Asiatics pro¬ 
duce a similar effect by smoking opium; the 
Africans, use the hashish or hemp-extract, 
and the South-Sea Islanders prepare a 
narcotic from a kind of pepper. These all 
perhaps without an exception, produce at 
first an agreeable sensation—an increased 
activity and vividness of the imagination by 
their stimulating effects. War has been 
declared against these intoxicating elements 
in all their length and breadth and depth. 
The sword was taken in hand in China— 
while over Christendom facts and argu¬ 
ments have been the chief weapon employ¬ 
ed by the combatants. The main citadel 
in many places seems to have been stormed 
—while the evil seems to be showing itself 
in other forms, whose name may be called 
legion. 
Tea and coffee are considered by many > 
harmless beverages, though we think other¬ 
wise. The first coffee house was opened in 
London, in 1652, by a Greek Pasqua—and 
in 1671, the first in Marseilles. The pro¬ 
duction of coffee now, is said to be about 
250,000 tons—150. years ago it was about 
5,000. In 1820, A. Von Humboldt esti¬ 
mated the consumption of coffee in Europe 
alone to be 75,000 tons, valued at 4,500,- 
000 pounds sterling. 
The custom of coffee-drinking dates far 
back in the ages of the past. According 
to tradition, its use in Abyssinia had been 
known from time immemorial. It is not, 
as has been supposed, indigenous in Ara¬ 
bia. It was used by the ancients to keep 
themselves awake during the holy nights of 
prayer. The orthodox Mahometans oppos¬ 
ed its use and made it a subject of learned 
theological researches. The opposers of 
coffee, it is said, went so far as to affirm that 
the countenances of coffee-drinkers would 
appear on the day of the resurrection, black¬ 
er than the coffee-grounds. Women, ac¬ 
cording to the Koran, might indulge in the 
use of this beverage without any such fears. 
Coffee in Arabia, it is said, took the place 
of a beverage made of Cafta leaves, the use 
of which they inherited from their ances¬ 
tors who had no knowledge of its oriein. 
The Spaniards found the Mexicans using 
chocolate which had been used among them 
from time out of mind. This beverage is 
now common in Europe. 
In 1664, the English East India Com¬ 
pany made a present to the Queen of Eng¬ 
land of two pounds of tea—and this was 
considered a splendid present. In the be¬ 
ginning of the 17tb century, a quantity of 
carefully packed, dried green leaves, was 
presented to a Russian Embassy in China, 
in return for gifts of splendid furs. These 
dried leaves were reluctantly taken to Mos¬ 
cow and prepared according to the direc¬ 
tions, and nmt with great approval. About 
the same time the Dutch East India Com¬ 
pany attempted to sell to the Chinese, sage, 
used then as tea is now, and they obtained 
in exchange Chinese tea. 
The use of tea as a beverage in China, 
dates back according to tradition, to the 
third century. The old Chinese legend re¬ 
minds one of the introduction of coffee into 
Arabia. “ A pious hermit, who in his 
watchings and prayers had often been over¬ 
taken by sle^p, so that his eyelids closed in 
holy wrath against the weakness of the flesh 
cut them off and threw them on the ground. 
A god caused a tea-shrub to spring out of 
j them, whose leaves exhibit the form of an 
I eyelid, bordered with lashes, and possessing 
; the gift of hindering sleep.” The whole 
quantity of tea produced in China, is esti¬ 
mated at 250,000 tons. 
The Brazilian, together with the almost 
entire population of South America, exhibit 
the same strong passion for mate or Para- 
guaian tea, the leaves of a Brazilian holly, 
that characterizes the Chinese. The origin 
of the use of the mate is, also, unknown. 
“Thus,” says Schleidex, from whose 
writings we have drawn many of the his¬ 
torical facts here given, “ have all these 
beverages everywhere become tbe neces¬ 
saries of life; everywhere is the origin of 
their use enveloped in mythical obscurity; 
everywhere has man, not led by rational 
considerations, by knowledge of the proper- 
tioo o.r\<i antusxi , Vvy A ’ \ 1 ,r m 
with nutritive substances alreadv known 
but, as it were, instinctively added them to 
the number of his wants.” w. 
QUACK GRASS. —SOULE AND MEDITERRA¬ 
NEAN WHEAT. 
Eds. Rural: — I noticed that you were 
rather severe on quack grass in vour an¬ 
swer to the inquiries of a correspondent 
some time since. Somewhat too severe, 
notwithstanding the rootiness of the subject 
under consideration, as I shall endeavor to 
show. 
A friend of mine has a lut which was 
completely covered with quack grass in 
1848, at which time he determined on its 
subjugation by a thorough summer-fallow¬ 
ing. The field was plowed five times, (I 
think,) and thoroughly harrowed, so that 
at the time of sowing wheat not a green 
thing was to be seen upon it. I should 
state, however, that the season was very 
dry. Having been seeded with clover it 
was last year pastured. This season it is 
planted with corn, and I doubt if a better 
or cleaner piece of corn can be found in 
the country, notwithstanding it has receiv¬ 
ed but two slight hoeings. I am sure, Mr. 
Editor, that it would trouble you to find 
any quack among it, although I will not 
say that it is entirely exterminated. 
A correspondent writes you from Bald- 
winsville that the Club wheat in this sec¬ 
tion is much injured by insects, while the 
Mediterranean remains unharmed, &c. 
I notice this communication, believing it 
calculated to create a wrong impression as to 
the relative value of the two kinds of wheat 
for cultivation. In the first place the Soule’s 
wheat is not injured to anything like the 
extent your correspondent would represent; 
in fact it is only touched about the edo-es 
j " O 
of fields and in low places, where the snow 
or wet has partially killed the wheat and 
made it late. When did we ever have 
good wheat in such places? For several 
seasons past many of our farmers have been 
induced to sow Mediterranean because they 
supposed they could not raise the Soule 
wheat, and the article in question is calcula¬ 
ted to make them commit the error again. 
Now, if your correspondent, or any oth¬ 
er person interested will make the enquiry, 
he will find that those who have adhered 
to the Soule wheat, have uniformly had 
better crops than those who have taken to 
the Mediterranean. This is not all; when 
they come to market it they have less dif¬ 
ficulty in finding buyers, and obtain the 
greater price. I am fully satisfied that 
though one half the crop of Club wheat be 
destroyed by weevil, the farmer who sows 
it will be the gainer, even though the Med¬ 
iterranean should go unscathed. Farmers, 
try it thoroughly, and you will be satisfied 
of the truth of the assertions made by 
Frank. 
Van Buren, Onondaga Co., N. Y., Aug., 1851. 
