,89i THE RURAL NEW-YORKER. 64i 
In primitive Rome the father was an absolute despot 
in each household, and to eich was assigned a small lot of 
land to be held in perpetuity as private property. The 
households were united into gentes, and they held the 
bulk of the land in common, and it was, most likely, to 
some extent, cultivated in common as well as used for 
pasture. The State, which was made up of gentes, also 
held common lands, partly original, partly ceded by con¬ 
quered neighbors. In the time of Tacitus the Germans 
lived in villages in which “each house was surrounded by 
a space of its own.” The land was apportioned to these 
villages “ according to the number of cultivators and di¬ 
vided among them according to their rank, there being 
ample room for all. Every year they changed the arable 
land,” to preserve its fertility. There was also an ample 
supply of uninclosed and common land. In India the 
original Aryan notion of the possession of land has been 
preserved with the greatest fidelity. There each village, 
consisting of detached houses and surrounded with a 
district belonging to it, still forms a self-regulating com¬ 
munity. It holds the forest and pasture lands in common; 
while to each family is apportioned a plot of arable 
land which is hereditary in the family, though not sub¬ 
jected to will or sale. At the death of the bead of the 
family it is divided among his children, any of whom may 
transfer his share to another, but not to a stranger with¬ 
out the consent of the family. Lately, the grasping 
English law has given money-lenders the security of a 
mortgage on Indian land, a thing for ages previously 
unknown. 
In Europe the Slavs have best preserved the ancient 
characteristics of land tenure. Among the Bulgarians, 
Servians, Croatians and Dalmatians common lands, except 
those in mountain and forest, are portioned into separate 
divisions for families; but within the families there is 
still a strong sentiment of community. In the villages 
each family consists of several generations under one roof, 
the head of the household being somewhat more than 
master. Any member who departs forfeits his claim to 
any share of the family property. All who remain work 
in common at the various occupations for which they 
are best fitted, and have equal rights to the produce of 
their labors. The family property cannot be alienated, nor 
can the share of any member be transferred. When Rus¬ 
sian villages became congested, they threw off swarms 
which traveled together till they reached suitable unoccu¬ 
pied land, where they settled in villages and pastured their 
live stock in common, and also cultivated the land unitedly, 
apportioning the crops. The central government levied its 
taxes on the mir or village, and they were duly appor¬ 
tioned among the members. 
Such, in brief, is the origin of property in land among 
the various branches of the great Aryan race, and among 
other races it is much of the same character. In England, 
France, Germany, Switzerland and several other countries 
where feudalism vested the ownership of land in the sover¬ 
eign, many interesting traces of the primeval system still 
survive. In all cases, so far as the records or tradition 
show, when a member of a tribe or family abandoned it, or 
engaged in the rude trade or commerce of those days to 
the neglect of agriculture, he forfeited his claim to a share 
in the land, though the claim oftsn revived on his return 
to his original duties. The most ancient people of whom 
W 3 have any trustworthy record, therefore, owned land in 
t,overalty long before the vast bulk of the rest of the world 
made any record in history, and it was decades of centuries 
afterwards before most of the remainder of mankind had 
reached the same degree of civilization. 
The Farmers Club. 
ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. 
| Every query must be accompanied by the name and address of the 
writer to insure attention. Before asking a question please see if it is 
not answered in our advertising columns. Ask only a few questions at 
one time. Put questions on a separate piece of paper.] 
Eczema in a Young Horse. 
W. W., Souris, Manitoba—1 have a horse six years old 
and apparently in good health. The skin is glossy and 
loose, but around the shoulders lumps form and are trouble¬ 
some owing to collar friction, especially on top of the neck 
where they cause a good deal of irritation, so that the an¬ 
imal will scarcely allow one to touch him. I have applied 
cool lotions; but obtained no permanent relief. What is 
the matter? 
Ans.—Give six drams of the best aloes with one ounce 
•of ginger, to open the bowels. Prepare the horse for the 
physic by a light bran mash diet for 24 hours. Then give 
the medicine either in a ball or as a drench in one pint of 
water; continue the mash diet until the horse is freely 
purged. If not purged by this treatment, repeat the 
course after three days. Then give two tablespoonfuls of 
the following powders, in the feed twice daily: Glauber 
salts and powdered gentian each one pound, powdered 
nux vomica and nitrate of potash each two ounces, mix. 
If the bowels become too loose, omit the powders for a few 
days. Any abrasions of the skin should be dusted over 
once or twice daily with oxide of zinc powder, or preferably 
anointed with the benzoated oxide of zinc ointment. 
Warts on Colt’s Nose. 
i W. P., Kingston, N. J.—l turned my two-year-old colt 
out in the pasture field with the cows two months ago. I 
have noticed for the last month what appeared to be warts 
all over the animal’s nose, and now it is completely covered 
with large ones. I have put her in the stable and am 
bathing her nose with salt water. Has she been poisoned? 
And am I doing the right thing for her? 
Ans.—W arts are not uncommon on the nose and lips of 
young horses. They are not due to poisoning. Rub the 
warts with a stick of nitrate of silver or lunar caustic. 
Scrape the surface and rub the caustic well in daily until 
the warts are killed. 
Making Vinegar and Cider. 
C. G. H., Ellston, Fa.—How can I make good vinegar 
and cider fit for market ? 
Ans. —The Boomer & Boschert Co., Syracuse, N. Y., 
manufacture all kinds of cider-making machinery; send 
to them for descriptive circulars which give full directions 
for operating their machinery. Vinegar may best be 
made from cider by adding two or three gallons of old 
vinegar to each cask, having the casks not over two-thirds 
full, leaving the bungs out and keeping them where the 
temperature does not fall below 45 degrees. Keep the 
bung holes covered with cloth to exclude insects but not 
the air and the vinegar will make quite rapidly. There Is 
little encouragement to make vinegar for this market, as 
there is so much fraud and adulteration that the genuine 
article cannot be sold for a profitable price, though there 
are plenty of consumers anxious to buy it. There may be 
other markets where this is not the case, and as the apple 
crop has been light for two or three years, the market 
should be well cleaned of old stock. 
Mare Passing Yellow-Colored Urine. 
W. M. J., Union City, Pa.— My nine year-old mare was 
bred a year ago last spring and soon after her urine be¬ 
came quite yellow and still remains so. At times it seems 
to be all right; at other times it is only colored at the end 
with thick and yellow stuff. Where the urine strikes her 
breeching there is formed a lnmp of hard, yellowish matter 
and also on the stable floor. Sometimes she passes the urine 
with difficulty ; at other times freely. She seems in good 
health. She dropped her foal this spring and I have bred 
her again. Her feed consists in winter of oats and hay, 
with, occasionally, bran mashes and small potatoes, and 
she gets plenty of exercise. In summer she runs in past¬ 
ure. Her dung seems to be hard all the time whether on 
grass or hay. What should be done for her ? 
Ans.—I f the mare is again with foal, all active medica¬ 
tion should be avoided. Try the following course of treat¬ 
ment. Rub the loins once daily with an ammonia lini¬ 
ment (strong aqua ammonia one part, with sweet oil two 
parts, well shaken together) until the skin is slightly 
blistered. Then omit the liniment for a few days, and re¬ 
peat as before. Internally give one tablespoonful of the 
following powders in feed twice daily : sulphate of soda 
one pound, powdered gentian one-half pound, sulphate of 
iron two ounces, mix. 
Jersey Cow Ceases to Breed. 
J. W. F .. Homeuood, Pa.— My eight year old Jersey 
cow had a calf about 20 months ago and since then she has 
not come in season. She has aborted several times; but 
the two last calves came all right. She is inclined to be¬ 
come fat, being always in good condition. Is there any 
way of making her breed again ? 
Ans.—R educe the feed, or take away all grain, and place 
her on short pasture, where she will have plenty of exer¬ 
cise. If convenient, it might be well to allow the bull to 
run in the same pasture. If she still fails to come in heat, 
she will probably not breed again. Should she come in 
heat, but fail to breed, have her examined by a competent 
veterinary surgeon for local treatment. 
Turning the Soil Upside Down. 
M. B D., Elba, Mich.— Would The Rural advise one 
to turn the subsoil on top or plow deep, narrow furrows ? 
Ans.—I t is a bad practice to turn the subsoil on the top 
by making flat furrows. The seed sown on the poor soil— 
if it is poor, as it usually is—cannot grow freely and the 
young plants are stunted before the roots reach the better 
soil—if they ever do. But when the land is turned on 
edge, only a part of the subsoil is brought up and is mixed 
with the surface soil by harrowing, and the manure is 
mixed with it as well; thus the land is improved, and the 
fertile soil deepened each year until by thorough tillage 
and adequate manuring a high condition of fertility is 
reached. This cannot be done by turning flat furrows. 
Nor should the furrows be deep and narrow; they are best 
made as deep as wide or nearly so. A furrow nine inches 
wide and eight deep leaves the land in a very excellent 
condition for present use and future improvement. 
What Shall I Feed for Milk? 
C. H. W., Trumbauersville, Pa.— Of the following feeds, 
which should be fed to cows for milk and in what propor¬ 
tion ? Well-cured, sweet meadow hay, corn fodder cnt 
fine, corn and cob chop and rye and oat chop. I can buy 
wheat bran at $17.50, hominy feed at $18, linseed meal at 
$22.50, and oil-cake meal at $25 per ton. I want to get all 
the milk I can and all the fertility possible in the manure. 
Will it pay me to sell the rye at 70 cents per bushel and 
buy something else for the money ? 
Ans.—T he following combinations of the feeds and fod¬ 
ders included in the above list, will furnish rations, eco¬ 
nomical as to food compounds and palatable for the ani¬ 
mals : 
No. 1—10 pounds meadow hay. 
6 " corn and cod chop. 
5 “ wheat bran. 
3 “ linseed meal. 
No. 2—10 pounds cut corn fodder. 
5 hominy meal. 
6 “ wheat bran. 
3 “ linseed meal. 
No. 3—10 pounds cut corn fodder. 
5 “ hominy meal. 
5 “ ground oats. 
4 •' linseed meal. 
If it is desirable and more convenient, five pounds each 
of hay and corn fodder may be used instead of the 10 
pounds of corn fodder and hay, respectively, as given. 
Each of the above combinations may be considered a day’s 
ration for a cow in full flow of milk; when the cows be¬ 
come dry or approach the period of calving, the concen¬ 
trated feeds should be reduced ; this must be left to the 
judgment of the feeder, though experience has shown that 
the corn feed shouli be the first to be reduced. While a 
knowledge of the actual feeding value of the various fod¬ 
ders and feeds is of the first importance in the prepara¬ 
tion of rations, a great saving is often effected by a ju¬ 
dicious buying of concentrated mill feeds and a ju¬ 
dicious selling of farm crops, especially when the manure 
is carefully saved and economically used. The difference 
in actual food value between corn, oats, rye, hominy meal 
and wheat bran is probably not very great when properly 
used in a ration. Assuming that it is $20 per ton for 
each, and that $20 per ton is the average market price of 
each, the fertilizer constituents in them, rated at the fig¬ 
ures used in the estimation of fertilizer values, will con¬ 
siderably modify the actual cost. On the basis of 16 cents 
per pound for nitrogen, eight cents for phosphoric acid, 
and 4)^ cents for potash, corn is worth, in round numbers, 
$6, oats $8, rye $7, hominy meal $8, and wheat bran $14 per 
ton as a fertilizer. In other words, the fertilizing value 
of corn is 80 per cent of its cost; of oats, 40 per cent; rye, 
35 per cent, hominy meal 40 per cent, and wheat bran 70 
per cent. The actual manurial elements, i. e., those left 
after the substances have served as food, will of course be 
reduced by the amount retained In the animal, or in the 
animal product—milk ; for these feeds and for dairy ani¬ 
mals this item would, however, be proportionate in all 
cases. The distinction made between linseed and oil cake 
meal doubtless refers to new and old-process meal; the 
latter contains more fat than the former, though it is 
doubtful from results secured whether the actual feeding 
value is any greater. I should prefer the linseed or new- 
process at the price given, especially when fed in connec¬ 
tion with the other feeds mentioned. The feeding value 
of linseed meal may be considered as fully equivalent to the 
market price given, and its fertilizing value estimated as 
above would oe $22.60, making it, therefore, a most valu¬ 
able addition to our feeds, when judiciously used and 
when the increase in the value of the manure is a matter 
of importance, as it should be on all well-regulated farms. 
Rye at 70 cents per bushel is the most expensive feed on 
the list, and, with the exception of corn, the least valu¬ 
able from the standpoint of fertility. It would be wise 
economy to sell the rye. When wheat bran and hominy 
meal can be purchased at the prices mentioned, they could 
be profitably substituted for corn and oats, when the sell¬ 
ing price of corn Is more than 60 and that of oats more 
than 35 cents per bushel. E. B. VOORHEES. 
New Jersey Experiment Station. 
About Grapes. 
H. C. P., Gladdens, Pa— 1. Should grapes be set out in 
fall or spring ? 2. Wnat are the best wine grapes ? Are 
the Concord and Moore’s Early good for that purpose ? 3. 
What crabs are best for cider ? 
Ans.— 1. We prefer spring. In your climate, however, 
fall would answer as well, provided the vines were lightly 
mulched after planting, or before severe frosts. 2.—It is 
rather a question of what varieties will succeed with you. 
The following kinds are among the best for wine: Dela¬ 
ware, Elvira, Cynthiana, Norton’s Virginia, Martha, Mas- 
sasoit, Goethe, Pearl, Amber, Hermann, Wilder, Lindley, 
Herbemont and Lady. Concord makes a fair wine ; Moore’s 
Early not so good. 3. We do not know. 
Beaten by the “Sliver Beet.” 
D. R , Tippecanoe City, Ohio .—Among the seeds sent 
me by The Rural last spring were some of the Silver Top 
Beet. They will never make a beet here. I planted them 
largely in our garden; the result is that we have beet tops 
of enormous size, but no beets. The roots all straggle out 
in every direction and are of all sizes, from that of a finger 
down. As I have always said that everything that The 
R. N.-Y. sent out was the very best, some of my neigh¬ 
bors poke fun at me now on account of my beets. Do they 
do this always or what is the matter ? 
Ans.— These beets are meant for ornamental plants. The 
leaves when young make good greens. Stock are very 
fond of them and they grow large. You grew the roots 
about as large as it is possible to grow them. 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
Raising Currants from Seed.—A. J. B., Bluff Point, N. 
Y.—To raise currants from seed you may mix the latter in 
sand or soil in a small box and allow it to remain out-of- 
doors during the winter. Then sow sand and seeds in drills 
of well prepared soil in early spring. Or the seeds may be 
sown in flats of rich loamy soil. Allow them to remain 
out-of doors until February when they may be placed 
under glass or in a sunny window where the seeds will 
germinate in a few weeks. Transplant the seedlings to 
the open ground in late May. They will make plants dur¬ 
ing this first season a foot or more high that will stand 
the winter in safety. 
Digging Early Potatoes.—A. C. K., Cedar Rapids, 
Iowa.—We should dig the early potatoes as soon after 
the vines die as possible, both for the sake of selling or 
storing them and for getting some other crops on the 
land. 
Wensleydale Sheep.— W. J. R., Romeo, Michigan.—We 
believe there are none of these sheep yet in this country. 
They are a local English breed and, except for some peculiar 
localities, probably no better than Shropsnires. 
What About Russian Mulberries ?—B., Rising City, 
Neb.—Wbat is the experience of readers of The R. N.-Y. 
with the Russian Mulberry ? I set 100 trees eight years 
ago; they commenced bearing the second year; the fruit 
was worthless; but it has improved with each year and at 
present—August 10—there is plenty of fruit on the trees 
and it is better than It has ever been. The berries this 
year have been an inch in length. 
Sheep Bitten By Snakes.—Pi. & H., Halifax County, 
Va.—Inasmuch as jour sheep bitten by copperhead 
snakes were not probably discovered until taken sick some 
time afterwards, we know of no remedy that would be 
likely to be of any benefit. Possibly alcoholic stimulants 
in large and repeated doses might prove beneficial, as they 
are reputed to be in case of men. Give twice the dose you 
would for men. 
