ijttsbanbrg, 
X. A. WILLARD, A. M., EDITOR, 
Or Littli Falla, Hkkkimkr County, Sew York. 
AMERICAN DAIRYMENS' ASSOCI¬ 
ATION. 
Proceedings nt tin? Annual McM lng n t Utica* 
N. Y., January 12 nn<l 13, 1H7H. Abstract 
of Prof. Onldwell'i Address on the Theory 
of Fcrmeutntion mid Putrefaction. 
[Continued from page 78, last No.] 
The evening session of the Convention 
was almost, wholly occupied by the address 
of Prof. Caldwell on the subject of “ Fer¬ 
mentation and Putrefaction in their relation 
to Cheese Manufacture.” 
The Professor commenced by referring to 
the laws of putrefaction, and stating that all 
substances liable to decay, fermentation or 
putrefaction, may lie separated into two 
great divisions, viz.: Those that are com¬ 
posed of three elements—carbon, hydrogen 
and oxygen, and those which, in addition to 
these three, have one more of nitrogen. 
Compounds of the first class, like sugar, 
starch and fats, are usually very stable. 
Compounds of the second class, on the other 
hand, like white of eggs, flesh, and the casein 
of cheese, are unstable; the introduction of 
the element nitrogen lias made a weak link 
hi the chain. 
He said that new microscopic examination 
has revealed the fact that every case of fer¬ 
mentation or putrefaction is attended with 
the development or growth of living organ¬ 
isms, most of which, at least, belong to the 
vegetable kingdom, and the present most 
generally accepted view, is that these organ¬ 
isms are the cause of all fermentation and 
putrefaction—that the dusL of the atmos¬ 
phere as well as all fermenting or putrifying 
matter, contains either the germs of these 
microscopic fungi, or the fungi themselves, 
in one stage of development or another; that 
these germs fall on all substances exposed to 
the air, and that if the substance so exposed 
is one that can nourish their further devel- 
ment, they will vegetate and increase, and 
in so doing, cause the substance to decom¬ 
pose. That these fungi, like all others, aud 
like all plants, require a moderately elevated 
temperature and moisture for their growth, 
as well as food for their sustenance, and are 
killed by exposure to a temperature of 212° 
Fahrenheit; and that they live at the ex¬ 
pense of a portion of the substance in Which 
they grow, while the rest is decomposed— 
that is, fermented or putrified, with the final 
result of the breaking down of the whole 
structure. 
The Pencillium Cmstaciwn can run through 
its whole course in forty-eight hours at a 
temperature of 50 v to OCT, and produce a 
new crop of several hundred spores from 
each old one. The spores of fungi have 
great power to retain their vitality, and can 
he dried, frozen or heated in many cases to 
any temperuture short of 212° without in¬ 
jury. They are ready to germinate as soon 
as they fall from the stalk and retain their 
germinating power a long time—in 9ome 
cases three and one-half years. 
He referred to the experiments of Alex¬ 
ander Muller, of Sweden, who found 
that milk was most ready to turn sour at 
about blood heat, 08°—that a temperature 
either above or below that retarded the 
souring. Aud that with a higher temper¬ 
ature resulted in a disagreahle putrefac¬ 
tive odor—that rapid cooling of the milk to 
near freezing (32°) before putting it into the 
milk room kept it sweeter. Again ho found 
that milk turned sour much sooner in closed 
than in open vessels. In the experiment he 
put two vessels with milk on the stove and 
heated to a temperature of 75°—one of the 
vessels being closed, the oilier open. The 
milk in the open vessel was sweet after 
twelve hours, but that in the covered ves¬ 
sel was not only sour but emitted a disagree¬ 
able odor like that of sweat. This result 
shows that the practice of transporting milk 
warm from the cows to the factory is inju¬ 
rious. He found, also, that by subjecting the 
milk to a current of air or of oxygen, as 
soon as drawn it remained sweet longer than 
other portions not so t reated. 
We may remark hero that these experi¬ 
ments of Muller, and the conclusions 
drawn from them as to the treatment of 
milk, do not differ materially from what we 
have repeatedly urged to the readers of the 
Rural, and were obtained from our experi¬ 
ments years ago. 
The Professor refers also to the experi¬ 
ments of IIalueb, Pasteur and others, 
and says:—In the milk, as it comes from 
the cow, we have the micrococcus cells al¬ 
ready formed. Hallier proved their pres¬ 
ence in sows’ milk, and as he has always 
found them in the blood even of healthy 
animals it is reasonable to suppose that they 
are in all milk. So long as these cells re¬ 
main unchanged and do not grow and mul¬ 
tiply the milk will not be affected by their 
presence. The micrococcus grows only be¬ 
low the surface of a liquid rich in nitrogen, 
and where there is a deficiency of oxy¬ 
gen, and it. increases most rapidly at a 
slightly elevated temperature. Shut the 
warm milk up then in a tight, tin can, and 
how completely are all the necessary condi¬ 
tions fulfilled for the growth of the organ¬ 
ism ; and as soou as it begins to grow rap¬ 
idly the milk sours. On the other hand, 
expose the milk freely to the air or pass a 
current of oxygen through it, or cool it to a 
low temperature, and the conditions arc no 
longer so favorable for the growth, and the 
souring of the milk is retarded, although 
not in any case completely prevented, be¬ 
cause in none of these ways can you quite 
prevent the increase of the micrococcus. 
When the milk is boiled and then pro¬ 
tected from direct exposure to the germs of 
fungi in the atmosphere, it may he kept un¬ 
changed as long as you will. The speaker 
referred to the peculiar action of rennet 
in coagulating milk, and said this peculiar 
change in mlllc could be produced by' other 
means. A pure prepared curd, old cheese, 
extract of malt, sour cream, putrid flesh, or 
putrid milk, will produce the same effect. 
Tn some countries the Juice of figs, or sap 
of thistles, or a decoction of the flowers of 
the artichoke, or the crow foot, or of white 
and yellow bed straw, is used to effect coag¬ 
ulation in the manufacture of cheese. 
The process of coagulation, he concludes, 
is one of fermentation, and is accompanied 
by organic growth—by the multiplication 
of vegetable organisms. Tuakller asserts 
that the action of rennet is due simply to 
the fact that It, or its extract, contains, in a 
very great measure, the micrococcus of the 
particular fungi which produces this change 
in milk called coagulation ; that without this 
micrococcus, or the germs that may give 
rise to it, the change will not take place in 
the manner we ordinarily bring to pass, and 
that the reason why, if the extract of rennet 
is boiled a few minutes, it will no longer 
coagulate the milk any more than it will 
turn it sour, is because we have killed the 
fungus, aud that the coagulation is attended 
with, and is the result of, a rapid growth 
and multiplication of the micrococcus ; con¬ 
sequently the curd must contain it, aud by 
still further increase in the ripened cheese 
that is saturated with it. 
The speaker thought the proof suflicient 
that the rennet itself is a substance highly 
charged with a fungus or fungi in a certain 
state of development, viz.: that state called 
the micrococcus, or putrefactive yenst, and 
that it appears to be a substance peculiarly 
fitted to nourish a rapid growth and increase 
of the fungus without passing into a stale of 
stinking putrefaction; and that the coagula¬ 
tion of the milk by this rennet is the result 
of the rapid increase of this same micrococcus 
starting from the rennet that is added to the 
milk and spreading through the curd. That 
the process, therefore, is a true case of fer¬ 
mentation, and, like any fermentation, can 
be brought about by the same organism, 
from whatever source it may he derived— 
from old cheese, or putrid meat, or from the 
spores of the common Pencillium Crusta- 
ceum , ns well as from rennet, with this differ¬ 
ence only', that the completeness of the co- 
agulutn must depend upon the abundance of 
the elements of the fungus in the particular 
lortn of the ferment added, in accordance 
with the universal law of fermentation, that 
a given amount of a ferment can do only a 
certain amount of work. 
The ripening process of cheese, he said, 
is, after all, hut another expression for the 
assimulating process by which the growth 
and increase of the micrococcus is nourished. 
Growth of any kind in the vegetable and 
animal world must be attended with the as¬ 
similation of food, and the organism that 
needs food must get it from whatever ma¬ 
terial it can put itself in contact with. In 
the case of cheese, the fungus finds just what 
it wants in the highly nitrogenous casein 
around it. 
For the same reason also, the speaker con¬ 
cludes that meat when kept for some time is 
more tender and juicy than when cooked at 
once. 
In conclusion, the speaker said that the 
cheese maker, from beginning to end of his 
work, is brought into constant contact with 
one form or another of these modes of chemi¬ 
cal change—that the minute organisms by 
which they are brought about arc the very 
handmaids without which he could do noth¬ 
ing—without which his art would not exist 
at all—while they may on the other hand 
cause the ruin of his handiwork unless he 
keeps them fully under control. The lecture 
was illustrated by black board sketches and 
the Professor held the attention of the 
audience throughout, and was warmly ap¬ 
plauded at its close, receiving a vote of thanks 
for his able address. 
Mr. Williams of Oneida, on the part of 
the committee for drawing up a petition to 
Congress for a change in the revenue law, in 
regard to taxing manufacturers on sales of i 
cheese, presented the same for signature and 
the convention then adjourned to 9 A. M., on 
the next day.—[To be continued. 
POWER FOR CHURNING. 
In answer to inquiries, we present here il¬ 
lustrations of the different inodes of applying 
power in churning. Figure 1, although not 
CO G?) 
Itf Jjanltrn-tlarir. 
sn 
Figure 1. 
a power churn, is, nevertheless, a labor-sav¬ 
ing arrangement It is simply a hickory 
sapling about twelve or fourteen feet long, 
fastened firmly at the butt end, while at the 
other end is fixed a seat in which a child 
can sit and perform the work with more 
ease than a grown person in the ordinary 
way. The dash of the churn may be fastened 
at any point to accommodate the spring of 
the pole. 
FiduttK 2. 
Figure 2 Is the old-fashioned dog-churn, 
and probably as good in all respects as any. 
The tread-wheel should be carpeted, in order 
to give the dog a firm hold with his toe 
nails. Any carpenter can make it with no 
other directions than the engraving affords. 
The plain plank tread-wheel should be in¬ 
clined ns iu the engraving. 
Figure 3. 
Figure 3 is a vertical wheel with a rim 
about two feet in width, on the inside ol 
which the animal treads. It is necessary to 
have this wheel as much as eight or ten feet 
in diameter. The engraving gives ample in¬ 
sight into its mechanical construction. 
Figure 4. 
Figure 4 Is a water-power churn, showing 
the water-wheel fitting easily into the box or 
flume at the outlet of the dam; or it may be 
simply placed iu a swift-running brook, as it 
does not require much power or speed. The 
wheel should be about three feet in diameter. 
The power can be transmitted any distance 
by means of two wires fastened upon poles 
with swing-trees that receive a backward 
and forward motion from the crank of the 
water-wheel. 
There is another kind of dog-power very 
similar to the horse tread-mill power, which 
occupies less space than the other kinds; 
but, besides being expensive, the dog soon 
learns to get upon the sides of the box and 
shirk his duty. * 
- +++ - 
That Horrid Milking Stool. —I want to speuk 
about that horrid milking' stool. I am a small 
woman and am obliged to milk ten and some¬ 
times sixteen oows, atul can't be all day doing it. 
I have a small stool which I sot on nud hold the 
pail between tny knees. Any person with a little 
practice can do this. Cows should always stand 
on a plank floor to be milked—not In the mud. 
You will find this mode much better than having 
such an awkward stool to handle.—A Farmer's 
Wife. 
- 
Churn Thermometer*.—A correspondent asks 
where he can get churn thermometers—made for 
the purpose tuid about which there Is no hum¬ 
bug. Let advertisers answer. 
BREEDS OF POULTRY. 
The Farmer's Breed for Profit. 
Every poultry fancier has his choice of 
breeds; and as he breeds only to sell occa¬ 
sional pail's or trios at a fancy price, it is 
necessary that he keep the breeds pure and 
unmixed. But the farmer who breeds for 
eggs and flesh requires in the bird he breeds 
hardihood, early maturity, good layers, good 
form and size, as well as flesh not too coarse. 
The Bolton Grays give the most eggs, are 
very hardy, but they lack size. 
The Black Spanish are handsome, pro¬ 
ductive in eggs, but tender and small as 
compared with many others. 
The Game fowls arc of the best quality of 
flesh, but small, and only fair layers. They 
are, however, vigorous and active, and for 
those who are just settling in a new and 
wild section they are just the breed to have, 
because they are courageous and will pro¬ 
tect. themselves against the birds aud animals 
of prey. 
The Polands and the Hamburghs are 
ornamental, suited ■well to the yard of a 
suburban amateur fancier. They are pro¬ 
lific of eggs, but the bodies are small and 
tbe flesh is deficient in rich juiciness, no 
matter how well fed and fattened they arc. 
The Crcvc Cceurs are fine birds of good 
size, but not quite hardy enough for the lofts 
and open sheds usually given to the uso 
of poultry by the generality of farmers. 
The Iloudans are more hardy, of good, 
fair size; prolific as layers, but poor setters 
and bad mothers. These two last named 
breeds are disposed to roam as much as the 
game fowl. 
The white Dorkings are handsome, but 
few can he found of any size or hardihood. 
As generally found they have been so much 
bred in-aud-in, that they are small, say not 
above four pounds to the liens and six 
pounds for codes, and tender as regards 
rearing of the chicks. 
The colored Dorkings when well bred, by 
due crossing, are large, well formed, delicate 
grained flesh, good layers, hardy, and come 
the earliest to maturity of any breed known. 
If they have been bred in-and-in for some 
time, the size will often be retained, but the 
young chicks from such in-and-in bred birds 
are difficult to raise. 
The Dominiques are next to the colored 
Dorkings in value, nearly as large, and, un¬ 
less the Dorkings have been well bred, are 
more hardy. They are good layers, good 
mothers, and the chicks easily raised. 
The Cochins arc large, very hardy, good 
, layers and sitters, but they so lack in plump¬ 
ness on the breast, and the flesh is so coarse 
and stringy in old fowls, that it detracts very 
much from their value as birds for the ama¬ 
teur’s table or for market sales. 
The Brahmas are like the Cochins, large 
—very large—but of better form, not so long 
in the leg, very hardy, good layers,—especial¬ 
ly in the winter,—good sitters and mothers, 
and the young chicks are easily reared ; but, 
like the Cochins, the flesh, of the old birds 
especially, is coarse and stringy, fit for no 
purpose but the tables of low-priced board¬ 
ing houses. 
The Farmer’s Breed is the breed for profit. 
It consists of Brahma hens and colored 
Dorking cocks—the chicks from which arc 
hardy, easily reared, grow fast, and in four 
months, without extra feed, will dress four to 
five pounds each of fine-grained, well-formed, 
plump-breasted, well-colored flesh, fit for the 
table of any amateur or epicure, and always 
commanding a good price in market. The 
hens from litis cross are even better and 
more continuous layers than either pure 
Brahma or the Dorking; hut if wanted to 
breed again, the farmer must keep one coop 
separate of Brahmas—say a cock and two 
liens—and so also of the Dorkings, and thus 
yearly with the cross of pure bred birds, 
cocks of the Dorkings and hens of the Brah¬ 
mas, keep up the " Farmer's Breed for profit." 
A. Thorn. 
- *-+-• - 
FOWLS: 
Can they be Successfully Reared in City 
aud Village? 
This is a question that has been frequent¬ 
ly raised by those residing in cities and vil¬ 
lages who have a fancy or desire for breed¬ 
ing fowls. To this query I answer yes. 
Having had several years experience in rear¬ 
ing fowls in a city, 1 can speak under¬ 
stand ingly on the subject. Fowls can be 
bred in cilies and villages equally as well as 
on the farm. Not in so large a ratio, but 
with more profit to the breeder. 
Nothing, in my opinion, looks more com¬ 
fortable, hotnc-like and rural, than to see 
strutting about the premises of a city or 
village resident, a few select :md well-kept 
fowls. If a tenement lias a yard not more 
than 10 by 20 feet, or even less, it will allow 
keeping of at least half a dozen fowls. A 
hennery large enough to answer the purpose 
can be built at little expense, and the advan¬ 
tage of having eggs for the table and culi¬ 
nary purposes that are known to be fresh and 
wholesome, cannot be too highly appreciat¬ 
ed. Thus yon have city and couutry com¬ 
bined, not only in theory, but in reality. 
Eggs, bad, good and indifferent, that are 
purchased of the grocer at five cents each, 
can, in the way I have proposed, be fur¬ 
nished fresh from your own hennery at a 
cost of not to exceed one cent each, the 
year round, to say nothing of the chicks you 
could rear during the season to supply your 
table. 
Undoubtedly city people, or the male por¬ 
tion of them, will object to this theory, on 
the plea that it would take to much of their 
valuable time to look after the fowls. This 
objection is easily overcome by leaving the 
care of them in the hands of the good house¬ 
wife, who would esteem it a great pleasure to 
care for the chicks and teach the children 
how to rear them. 
In villages there can be no excuse what¬ 
ever for not breeding fowls, experimentally, 
successfully and profitably. In nearly all the 
small villages in Europe fowls are bred by 
tenants,—their children make pets of them. 
Wherever then; is a cottage family living wn 
potatoes or better fare may be seen a little 
pent-house, with nests made of straw or hay 
for the fowls to lay in, and a speculation in 
eggs and chickens sought for. On market 
days a portion of the eggs and chicks thus 
produced, are sold to good advantage, to say 
nothing of the amount consumed by the 
family. It must be understood that poultry- 
breeding is largely on the increase, and as 
the product increases in value, the competi¬ 
tion becomes greater and the best breeds for 
laying and market purposes are sought for, 
not only as a matter of necessity, but of 
pleasure and profit. 
There is no valid reason why those living 
in villages cannot accomplish as much ou 
this score as our trans-Atlantic tenantry 
cousins. It is said Americans are shrewd, 
then why not let them demonstrate their 
shrewdness in this matter. 1 know, from 
past experience, that there is no money lost 
in keeping and rearing a few fowls, and a 
great deal of pleasure derived from it. 
Monroe Co., N. Y., 1870. R. O. Chester. 
-■*--*-*■- 
POULTRY PROFITS. 
I bend you my poultry account for the 
year ending Dec. 31,1869: 
Dr. 
To 80 fowl*-6$ hons and 11 cocks, at 50c. 833 OQ 
“ 2 cocks, bought nt ?l. 2 00 
“6 " “ " 7Sc. 3 75 
“ 6 liens “ “ 5 00 
'* 22 i ll tokens " 5 00 
'* 1 doz. Brahma egg* (extra). 5 00 
“ iced for the year.... 117 50 
8171 25 
»)r. 
By 86 doz. eggs, sold at 40c. 834 40 
- 50 “ " “ " 36c. 18 10 
*• 229. “ 30c. 68 70 
“ 97 " sold k used, at 25c. 2-1 25 
“ 8 cocks sold nt >1 ... 8(0 
“12.76c. 9 00 
80 liens and pullets sold at 76c. 60 00 
“ 38 other fowls. 13 60 
“ fowls on baud.. 40 00 
*875 85 
My fowls were Brahma, except a few 
crosses of Brahma and Black Spanish. I 
have all pure Brahmas for 1870. I have 
crossed the Brahma with three or four other 
kinds, but like them pure best. I feed prin¬ 
cipally on corn, buckwheat and screenings, 
and occasionally meal and middlings mixed, 
and fed warm. I also give pounded oyster 
shells, tallow scraps, cabbage, &c., two or 
three times per week. 
I sold during the year thirty bushels of 
manure at forty cents per bushel, besides 
putting considerable on my garden. N. 
- 444 - 
What Ail* the Turkey*7—Within n few days I 
have lost two very fine turkeys. The symptoms 
arc walking around with the eyes partly dosed, 
refusing food, moping around for two or three 
days and then die. They aro In good condit ion, 
nnd entirely free from vermin. I have raised 
them for leu or twelve years, but have never 
seen anything like It before. If you or any of 
your correspondents eau Inform me aa •<> the 
disease you will greatly oblige a—C onstant 
Reader. 
The symptoms above described are those of 
• vertigo. The affection is one evidently caused 
by undue determination of blood to the head, 
and la dependent on a full-blooded state of the 
system. Holding the head of the fowl under a 
stream of cold water for a short time Imme¬ 
diately arrests the disease; nnd a dose of any 
aperient, such as calomel, jalap, or castor oil, 
removes the tendency to the complaint. 
- - - < H- 
Gout in Fowl*.—I desire to obtain informa¬ 
tion of, and nmy lie a remedy for, what appears 
to be a disease. I have n very fine game ooek, 
which is troubled with what the children call 
“gout." In my ignorance I do not know if 
there is such u disease; but it affects the entire 
leg, from the leathers to the ends of the feet; 
has the appearance of dandruff or whitish scabs, 
without »nv appearance of soreness. I would 
be glad to learn of anything that will remove 
it.—B. K. S., Athens, Get., 1870. 
There is such adisonso as gout which nffects 
fowls-swellitig of the feet nnd legs, turning 
them to ft white or mealy oolor. Give one grain 
of calomel at night and three drops of wine of 
oolchicum twice it day, care being taken as to 
warmth, diet. &c., will in nearly ull cases effect 
Starting a Hennery.—I am anxious to know 
the best plan to raise chickens, both for setting 
and for laying, as rn.v intentions are now to go 
into tlie poultry business aud raise them for 
marketing, but more particularly for eggs I 
ask the beat plan for starting a hennery, and 
the way to use it.— S. M. 8., Chicago. 
If our correspondent will reud the volume of 
the Rural for 1809 he will get much informa¬ 
tion of immediate use to him. A bound volun e 
costs $4. Meantime we shall be glad to hear 
from correspondents in answer to the above 
InniiirlM 
