I  iP7l|ia!>i!l0i5 
ber  of  which  have  been  Bold  to  other  Bhopa.  Fig. 
1,  a  Straight  Edge,  in  made  in  the  fom  ahown, 
that  it  may  be  light  and  ko  strong  as  not  to  spring 
by  its  own  weight  —for  a  pleco  of  cast-iron  will 
spring  by  its  own  weight  the  same  (und  about  as 
much)  as  a  piece  of  wuod.  They  nro  planed  as 
true  as  possible  on  an  iron  planer,  and  afterward 
scraped  with  a  steel  scraper  until  either  two  of 
three  will  tit  together.  It  is  occcasary  to  make 
down  and  the  land  aU  plowed  together.  Prob¬ 
ably  in  time  most  farming  land  suitable  for  tillage 
in  the  Eastern  States  will  lie  unfenced.  'I'ho 
tendency  that  way  is  very  decided  now,  and  as 
a  well-laid  under  (Iraiii  is  something  for  nil  time, 
it  is  well  to  provide  against  all  contiugcuries.  So 
we  would  not  adviso  illling  a  drain  up  with  stone 
to  the  surfaeo  under  a  fence — not  even  a  road¬ 
side  or  lino  fence.  It  is  no  advantage  to  tJie 
than  the  heat  of  our  short  Northern  snmiuors  can 
roach.  Some  of  our  most  e.\poricnccd  vineyanlista 
now  adviao  shallow  planting  and  keopuig  the  rich 
soil  near  tho  surface,  to  discourage  the  roots  from 
striking  into  th(3  subsoil.  The  better  plan  is  on 
all  soils  not  naHually  thy  to  th'am  thonnighlvand 
leave  the  roots  to  go  where  they  choose.  \Vc  nro 
satislicd^thnt  thorough  ilrninago  will  hasten  tho 
ripening  of  grni)es  a  week  or  ten  days  on  all  heavy 
soils  and  hisiu'c  tho  ripening  of  (!at.awba3(  and 
IsabuUaii  when  they  otherwiuo  prove  a  failuie. 
The  best  vineyards  nro  pUintod  on  ‘'drift”  soil 
composed  of  fine  particles  of  earth  and  rock  iior- 
ous  enough  to  allow  free  thadnage  to  u  great 
depth.  It  is  only  ncccfisary  to  bring  heavy  soils 
artificially  to  tho  condition  w  hich  tht  iio  liold  luit- 
COKNELL  UNIVEESITY  MACHINE  SHOP, 
Ed.  Koral  New-Yobrer:— I  am  aware  that 
an  Agricultural  Journal  does  not  appear  at  first 
sight  to  be  just  the  jdact^  in  which  to  sot  forth 
the  merits  of  a  Machine  Shop ;  but  as  quito  one- 
half  of  om-  recruits  are  made  up  of  farmers’  sous, 
and  a  largo  i)ercentago  of  our  bfsst  mechanics 
have  received  their  first  and  many  times  their 
best  lessons  in  handicraft  while  hel|)uig  to  hmld 
and  repair  the  farm  buildings  and  implements,  I 
believe  .'v  simplo  explanation  of  what  we  are  try- 
Fioube  I 
OORE'S  RURAL  NEW-YORKER. 
mg  to  no  lo  auvance  tlio  btiindmg  and  standard 
of  the  nioohanics  of  tho  country  wriU  find  many 
an  interested  reader  among  the  farmers’  sous  ami 
village  subsoiibers  of  tho  IttJR.VL. 
While  there  may  bo  some  quostion  whether  tho 
Agricultural  Colleges  ha^e  proved  a  success  or 
not,  there  can  bo  no  tjnciilma  about  their  not 
meeting  the  expt^ctations  of  their  advocates ;  and 
so  fai'  have  they  fallen  short  of  it  that  many 
earnest  educators  have  questioned  if  it  were  jms- 
sible  to  do  any  better  in  attenjptiug  to  teach 
practical  mechanics  than  it  has  been  in  teaching 
practical  agriculture.  Tho  general  belief  was, 
aud  still  i.H,  mth  a  largo  majority,  that  tho  best 
method  is  to  teach  science  or  theories  in  colleges, 
and  the  practice  in  the  best  estalilishmonts  of 
engineering  or  machine  shops.  There  are  some 
difficulties  in  carrying  out  this  scheme,  and  alsro 
some  objections  to  it  when  carried  out.  The 
simple  operations  performed  in  a  machine  shop 
are  the  measuring  of  distances,  making  sirnfaces 
flat,  edges  straight  and  corners  square  or  at  other 
fixed  angles,  and  the  making  of  holes  and  cylin¬ 
ders  round  and  hi  the  main  parallel  or  conical, 
and  a  joining  of  parts  by  a  combination  of  tho 
To  give  ni 
“■  o">.v  -0= 
V  -  that  amount.  I 
Fiodee  2. 
other  ojierationa.  You  can  count  upon  your 
fingers  all  tho  establishments  in  tho  country  that 
make  a  pretense  of  perfection  in  any  of  the.se 
operations,  then  divide  tlial  mimber  by  two  and 
you  will  still  outnumber  those  that  approach  all 
of  them. 
In  starting  this  Machine  Hliop,  three  years  ago, 
which  had  been  endowed  by  the  Hoti.  ilnwoi  Hib- 
DEY,  President  WmxE  strongly  opposes!  tho  add¬ 
ing  of  another  to  the  thousand  ordinary  machine 
shops  already  in  tho  country.  To  avoid  this,  and 
to  make  the  shop  what  I  thought  it  ought  to  be, 
viz., — a  place  which  should  have  a  similar  rela¬ 
tion  to  tlie  onlinary  shop  that  the  University  does 
to  tho  common  school,  wo  have  endeavored  to 
give  the  students  exjierionce  in  the  ]ierformance 
of  these  fumlamerital  u)ierationd — using  wh.at  we 
suppose  to  be  tho  host  methods  and  carrying 
thorn  to  as  high  state  of  perfection  as  known  at 
tho  present  time,  and  in  applying  them  to  a  lim¬ 
ited  extent  in  the  construction  of  original  ma¬ 
chinery  rather  than  in  duplicating  rwdinary  ma¬ 
chine  tools  which  can  be  done  more  clieaply  else¬ 
where.  By  tlie  adoption  of  this  plan  we  have 
gained  in  many  ways.  We  have  the  good  will  of 
the  best  engineering  establishments  in  the  conn- 
tiy,  and  tlioy  havo  helped  us  by  donations  of 
photographs  of  Hi>ecimons  of  their  manufactm’e, 
and  in  many  other  resj^ect-s.  wlillc  our  students 
become  familiar  with  tho  ways  and  machinery  of 
the  different  makers,  and  onr  friendly  relations 
gain  for  them  a  passport  and  often  employment 
in  these  eetablishmentis :  w  hereas  a  man  taught 
in  one  of  the.se  workshops  is  liable  to  be  one-sided 
in  his  thoughts  aud  looked  upon  with  suspicion 
if  he  wishes  to  gain  adnriHaion  into  another. 
This  statement  that  there  arc  so  few  places 
where  they  know  what  straight,  flat  and  round 
implies,  may  seem  a  bold  one ;  but  it  is  the  execu¬ 
tion  of  these  simplo  operations  that  in  the  main 
constitute.^  the  difference  bctNveeu  the  best  and 
the  common  work,  and  a  knowledge  of  how  the 
work  is  accomplished,  to  any  mechanic,  oven  if 
he  has  no  occasion  to  nso  it— and  if  ho  knows 
how,  ho  is  much  more  likely  to  find  a  demand  for 
its  use  than  if  he  does  not. 
Tlie  accomiianriug  figures  show  some  of  the 
tools  we  have  made  for  our  own  use  and  a  num- 
three,  because  two  might  be  fitted  together  per¬ 
fectly  and  yet  not  be  straight,  one  being  concave 
and  tile  other  convex  ;  but  when  oithbr  two  of 
three  fit  in  all  positions  they  must  all  bo  straight. 
So  porfoefc  do  the  Btudent.s  make  these  that  when 
two  arc  placed  together  before  a  hghl  not  a  ray 
passed  between  them,  w'hilo  u.  human  bail-  placed 
bet\v(!cii  makes  an  app.orently  large  opening,  and 
tho  upper  straight  edge  will  swing  around  upon 
the  hair  as  easily  as  a  “whirligig”  swings  upon 
its  post. 
The  Hurface  Plates  (Fig.  2)  arc  made  by  Iho 
SHino  process,  also  throe  are  essential  to  prove 
their  accuracy.  Ho  perfect  are  they  made  that 
one  glides  upon  another  as  freely  as  ico  glides 
upon  ico.  Tlic  cxpbmnfion  of  tins  is  that  a  film 
of  au‘  romauis  between  the  two  plates  ;  tho  npjjcr 
one  floats  uprsi  that  film  of  air.  If  the  air  is 
forced  out  from  between  tho  plates,  one  will  lift 
the  oilier  up  with  it  and  hold  it  for  a  consider¬ 
able  length  of  time. 
Tho  Square.s  and  Angle  Pl.atos,  shown  in  tlio 
other  figures  (3  and  4)  arc  made  equally  perfect. 
All  these  tools  arc  used  to  test  the  accuracy  of 
other  work  by  covering  I  heir  faces  with  a  tliiu 
film  of  red  paint  and  rubbing 
them  oulhc  work  boing  tested. 
Tho  Measuring  M-achlnc,  sliown 
in  tho  last  figure  (.'»)  nieasnrcs 
from  0  to  12  inches  by  the  1-10000 
of  an  inch,  and  will  borcailily  un- 
kderstood.  Tho  screw  haa  a  thread 
16  to  tho  hich,  and  the  wliecl  is 
graduated  into  625  parts.  It  is 
jilain  that  by  tiu-niiig  this  wheel 
one  of  the  divi.sions  that  tho  meas- 
X  uring  points  must  bo  brought  tho 
1-10000  of  an  inc;h  nearer  togeth- 
or.  To  give  an  idea  haw  small  a 
distance  the  1-10000  of  an  inch  ia, 
it  i.s  Only  necessary  to  conside:^ 
that  a  hair  is  from  15  to  .30  times 
tJiat  amount.  T|io  machiuo  is  used 
principally  for  making  standard 
gauges,  one  of  which  is  sliowu  in 
_ ,  the  machine.  It  ia  simply  a  tool, 
the  lower  part  ground  to  a  given 
standard  size  to  gauge  or  caliper 
tlio  size  of  a  hole,  and  the  open  end  ground  out 
to  the  same  size  to  measure  or  caliper  shafts  and 
any  other  work.  They  are  made  in  sizes  vai-ying 
by  l-16th  of  an  inch,  from  to  6  inches.  ^\’ith 
tliese  tools  time  is  saved,  a  uniform  standard  of 
measm’emonts  is  secured,  and  the  work  of  one 
shop  will  interchange  with  the  work  of  another. 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Dec.,  ISTS.  Joun  E.  Sweet. 
AERATING  SOILS  BY  DRAINAGE. 
It  has  always  been  onr  practice  in  making  uii- 
derdrains,  eK()ecially  in  heavy  soil,  to  have  vent 
holes  at  tho  crosHUigs  of  ]jormanent  fences  be¬ 
tween  fields  through  which  snrfaco  water  could 
run  more  freely  into  tlie  drain.  This  however  is 
by  no  means  necessary,  and  we  are  not  sure  that 
It  is  advisable.  Great  care  haa  to  be  taken  in 
placing  stones  carefully  in  these  veut-holos  and 
filling  up  with  Iheni  to  the  surface  so  as  to  catch 
and  hold  straws,  weeds  and  dirt,  which  might 
otherwise  be  washed  into  and  obstruct  the  drain. 
•  drain  any  way,  and  may  some  time  become  very 
I  inconvenient. 
’  In  extremely  cold  weather  there  is  always  a 
wai’m  cuiTont  of  nir  ri.Hing  from  these  drain  chim- 
1  neys.  Heavy  banks  of  snow  di'ifting  into  tlio 
fence  will  bo  thawed  away  over  tho  stone  heap 
1  through  which  the  warm  air  rises  and  the  deeper 
the  drain  the  more  continncd  (be  ciuTcnt  of  air 
rising  as  warmed  by  (bo  internal  heat  of  the 
earth.  At.  other  limes  of  tho  year  than  winter 
the  action  is  roversfd.  As  water  is  di-awn  off 
through  tho  drain  pipus  when  the  land  ia  flooded 
in  spring  and  fall,  its  [ilacc  is  Hatiirally  fiUod  by  I 
the  warmer  snrfafio  atmosphere. 
This  air  gradually  cools  as  il  sinks,  ^ 
hut  it  cools  only  as  it  inipartii  its 
warmth  to  tho  earth  with  which  ’'.n"' 
it  conics  iu  contact,  but  never  be-  K 
coming  colder  than  tho  air.  In  a  rtli 
tlioroiighly  drained  soil  tlie  warm 
Humnior  rains  carry  down  an  ap-  jjjpll 
prcciablo  amount  of  heat,  but  this  t 
i.s  slight  as  compared  with  the 
warnitli  imparted  to  tlio  soil  by  '  ' 
heated  air.  In  iindraincd  soils,  on 
the  contrary,  iho  tendency  is  n  -  ,, 
versed,  and  tlio  land  luscu  ia^tead 
of  gaining  heat.  Water  ovajiorat- 
ing  slowly  Irorii  the  surface  takes 
not  only  Us  own  heat  but  steals  “ 
heat  from  tlio  soil  which  it  toiiclics, 
making  it  cold,  sour  and  nnpro.lnctivo.  Every 
farmer  knows  tlie  diffcroiico  in  quality  of  tho 
herbage  on  a  drained  and  undraiuedsoU.  Coarse, 
[Kjor  and  thin  grass  will  bwomo  swcot  and  nu¬ 
tritious  liy  drainage.  We  think  this  effect  goes 
farther  tliuu  is  generally  snpjxiscd,  as  any  one 
may  believe  by  seeing  how  closoly  grass  will  be 
cropped  over  an  nnderdrain,  while  a  few  rods 
distant  on  laud  not  reached  by  the  diain  but  not 
called  wet,  the  grass  will  be  left  untstCHl,  I'art 
I  of  this  result  is  doubtless  duo  lo  the  fertilizuig 
cffiKif.  of  aeration  of  tho  soil.  The  am-face  at- 
iiiosphero  following  tho  wah-r  down  to  and  into 
(lie  drain  parts  with  most  of  its  fertilizing  prop¬ 
erties  to  the  earth  with  which  it  con los  in  con¬ 
tact.  Flence  a  good  uridordmin  not  only  makes 
availablo  tlio  fertility  in  tho  soil,  but  actually  in¬ 
creases  tho  amount.  Every  drop  of  water  perco¬ 
lating  tlu'ougli  the  soil  cither  from  rani  or  snow, 
])tu  ts  with  its  ammonia  on  its  downward  passage, 
and  the  air  which  foUowa  contributes  an  .addi¬ 
tional  (piota.  Land  tJiat  is  well  drained  ia  eon- 
stantly  being  mannre<l— the  foi'ccof  nature  oper¬ 
ates  in  behalf  of  the  good  farmer  who  drauis  his 
fields,  As  tho.  undrained  soil  is  constantly  losing 
fertility  by  oxaporation,  so  tlie  drained  is  gaining 
by  absorjitiou.  It  is  thought  to  be  a  shrewd  move 
■  if  Olio  is  fiblo  to  get  without  BtoaUng  something 
from  your  neighbor.  'Hjo  farmer  who  drains  his 
land  and  keeps  the  surface  open  and  di\y,  is  con¬ 
stantly  absorbing  fertility  which  liis  loss  sensible 
neighbor  aUows  to  go  to  waste. 
The  mcroased  wannth  of  soil  secured  by  under¬ 
draining  id  sjxicially  iniixirtant  for  gardens,  and 
also  for  fruits  which,  like  the  gra^ie,  require  the 
I  greatest  amount  of  heat  to  secure  their  maturity. 
It  is  now  generally  conceded  that  to  dig  a  deep 
hole  and  fill  it  witli  rich  earth,  ia  the  very  worst 
preparation  for  planting  a  grape  vine.  Why? 
urally,  to  make  them  equally  adapted  to  vineyard 
culture. 
Jniustrial 
FARM  LETTING  IN  ENGLAND. 
Most  of  the  largo  farms  in  England  ai-o 
worked  by  tenants,  and  tho  prices  at  which 
lands  arc  lot  aro  a  good  indication  of  tho  im¬ 
provement  of  fanning  and  the  condition  of  the 
fanuing  interest.  In  one  case  tho  yearly  rental 
Fioehe  5. 
Besides,  we  have  always  found  it  hard  to  tell 
what  is  a  permanent  and  what  is  a  tenqxirary 
fence.  As  rails  and  fencing  material  become 
scarce,  fields  are  enlarged,  division  fences  pulled 
Only  Ijecause  this  deep  hole  is  a  reservoir  for 
water  which,  by  glow  evaporation,  chills  the  earth 
with  which  the  roots  come  m  contact,  while  the 
rich,  deep  soil  tempts  grape  roots  to  stiikc  deeper 
Figure  3. 
of  a  farm  of  860  acres  was  increased  from  £1,- 
050  to  £1,700,  or  about  70  per  cent.  Tho  low 
rent  was  fixed  in  1848,  and  the  tenant  spent 
over  £18,000  in  di’aining  and  improving  tho 
farm,  on  a  21  years’  lease.  Most  of  thi.s  large 
Slim  was  of  course  spent  in  tho  earlier  ytmia  of 
Uio  lease,  and  it  was  reckoned  that  the  improvo- 
ments  had  more  Uian  jiaid  for  themselves,  ho-' 
sidcH  cnormouBl.v  increasing  the  value  of  the  es¬ 
tate  to  the  landlord.  Wliat  do  American  farm¬ 
ers  who  own  tho  land  they  Ull  think  of  this  ? 
WiU  il  not  pay  here  to  underdrain,  manure  and 
Fiourb  4. 
clean  land  as  well  as  it  pays  tho  tenant  farmers 
of  England  ?  Very  few  improvements  would  bo 
made  hero  if  the  farmers  were  not  also  owners 
of  the  soil.  In  England  a  21  years’  lease  is 
deemed  sufficient  margin  for  making  almost  as 
many  improvements  as  on  land  held  hi  foe.  One 
of  these  largo  tenants  who  leased  a  large  farm 
at  low  rates  before  an  extraordinary  rise  in  prices 
cleared  £100,000  sterling,  or  half  a  million  dol¬ 
lars,  in  twenty  ycari.  Htill  longer  leaHea  arn 
made,  and  some  of  nincty-nino  years  are  yearly 
falling  due.  It  is  also  said  that  some  leasee  for 
nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  years,  made  in  tho 
time  of  Ai-fbkd  tlio  Great,  have  nearly  expired, 
and  tho  heirs  to  the  property  are  carefully 
tracing  their  genealogies  back  to  claim  posses- 
sion  when  tho  lease  has  closed. 
Enoland  sends  more  flour  to  the  West  Indies 
and  South  America  than  wo,  though  England  is 
an  importer  while  we  are  an  exporter  of  wheat. 
England’s  policy  of  free  trade  encourages  tho 
West  Indies  to  export  to  that  comitry,  and  of 
course  they  buy  what  they  need  in  return.  Fair 
exchange  is  no  robbery. 
