Introduction. ix 
IV. Gallinaceous Birds (Gallince). — Having the upper mandible 
arched, and covering the lower one at the edge, and the nostrils 
arched over with a cartilaginous membrane, as the common 
poultry. 
2. Water Birds. 
V. Waders ( Grallce). — Having a roundish bill, a fleshy tongue, and 
the legs naked above the knees, as the herons, plovers, and snipes. 
VI. Swimmers (Anseres). — Having their bills broad at the top, and 
covered with a soft skin, and the feet webbed, as ducks and 
geese. 
ORDERS OF AMPHIBIA. 
Under the third class, or Amphibia, Linnaeus arranged such animals 
as have a cold, and, generally, naked body, a lurid colour, and nau- 
seous smell. They respire chiefly by lungs, but they have the power 
of suspending respiration for a long time. They are extremely tena- 
cious of life, and can repair certain parts of their bodies which have 
been lost. They are also able to endure hunger, sometimes even for 
months, without injury. 
The bodies of some of them, as the turtles and tortoises, are pro- 
tected by a hard and horny shield or covering ; those of others are 
clad with scales, as the serpents, and some of the lizards; whilst 
others, as the frogs, toads, and most of the water-lizards, are entirely 
naked, or have their skin covered with warts. Many of the species 
shod their skins at certain times of the year. Several of them are fur- 
nished with a poison, which they eject into wounds that are made by 
their teeth. They chiefly live in retired, watery, and marshy places ; 
and, for the most part, feed on other animals, though some of them eat 
water-plants, and many feed on garbage and filth. None of these 
species chew their food ; they swallow it whole, and digest it very 
slowly. 
The offspring of all these animals are produced from eggs, which, 
after they have been deposited by the parent animals in a proper place, 
are hatched by the heat of the sun. The eggs of some of the species 
are covered with a shell ; those of others have a soft and tough skin or 
covering, not much unlike wet parchment ; and the eggs of several are 
perfectly gelatinous. In those few that produce their offspring alive, 
as the vipers and some other serpents, the eggs are regularly formed, 
but are hatched within the bodies of the females. 
This class Linnaeus divided into three Orders : 
I. Reptiles. — Having four legs, and walking with a crawling pace, 
as the tortoises, toads, and lizards. 
II. Serpents. — Having no legs, but crawling on the body. 
III. Nantes. — Living in the water, furnished with fins, and breath- 
ing by means of gills. These are true Fishes, principally of 
the group termed Chondroptert/pii, or Cartilaginous Fishes, by 
Cuvier. 
