32 
PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Series 4, Volume 65, Supplement I 
Rafinesque’s big-eared bats will use human-made structures specifically built to mimic their 
natural roosts (Bayless, 2006; see “Management Practices and Concerns” below). 
Population Ecology. — Litter Size, Natality, and Female Reproduction: A single young 
is bom (but few primary data are available on litter size) once a year in early summer, following 
an autumn and winter mating with presumed delayed ovulation and fertilization, although details 
on the latter processes are lacking (Jones, 1977, Schmidly, 1991). Twelve roosting females were 
observed with 12 pups under a bridge in Mississippi, where three females were observed giving 
birth to singletons (Wolters and Martin, 2011). Two of 6 (33%) females netted away from roosts in 
Arkansas were reproductive (Fokidis et al., 2005). Males apparently do not breed until they are 
older than one year (Jones and Suttkus, 1975), but little is known about age of first reproduction or 
inter-birth intervals in females. Sex ratios of young in North Carolina were 1:1 (Clark, 1990). New¬ 
born pups were first observed in mid-May and lactation occurred through mid-to-late July in south¬ 
ern Mississippi, with highest numbers in maternity colonies under bridges occurring in June 
(Trousdale and Beckett, 2004). In central western Mississippi, parturition was observed in late May 
(Wolters and Martin, 2011). Similar times for parturition and lactation were noted in eastern Texas 
(Mirowsky et ah, 2004). 
Survival: We are unaware of any published literature with quantitative data on survival for 
this species. 
Mortality Factors: It has been suggested that a variety of predators, including snakes, rac¬ 
coons, opossums, and cats may occasionally feed on Rafinesque’s big-eared bats (Jones, 1977; 
Clark, 1990; Clement and Castleberry 2013a,b; see also review in Lacki and Bayless, 2013), but 
there is little documentation of other factors causing direct mortality in these bats. Rafinesque’s 
big-eared bats are seldom investigated for rabies infections, but rabies-based mortality has been 
documented (Sasse and Saugey, 2008). An adenovims has been described from a single bat from 
Kentucky but without definitive accompanying pathology and mortality (Hackenbrack et ah, 
2017). A few species of helminth gastrointestinal parasites (McAllister et ah, 2005) and ectopara¬ 
sites are known (Crossley and Clement, 2015), and alopecia (hairlessness) of unknown etiology has 
been reported (summarized in Lacki and Bayless, 2013), but these cases have not been associated 
with mortality. There are no published records of multiple mortality events (O’Shea et ah, 2016a). 
The white-nose syndrome fungus has been detected using molecular genetics on the wings of two 
Rafinesque’s big-eared bats sampled at a winter hibemaculum in Tennessee, but no disease or 
pathology was reported (Bernard et ah, 2015). Four Rafinesque’s big-eared bats captured away 
from roosts during summer in Tennessee all were negative by PCR testing of skin samples (Car¬ 
penter et ah, 2016). It has been suggested that the frequent winter arousals seen in this species may 
help ameliorate susceptibility to white-nose syndrome and prevent the devastation seen in some 
populations of eastern bats that experience deeper torpor during hibernation (Johnson et ah, 2012b; 
Bernard et ah, 2015). It also has been suggested that if white-nose syndrome pathology occurs in 
Rafinesque’s big-eared bats, it is more likely to be found at the northern portions of their distribu¬ 
tion where the bats tend to hibernate longer in caves and at higher densities (Lacki and Bayless, 
2013). 
A maximum longevity record of at least 10 years has been documented (Paradiso and Green- 
hall, 1967), and several marked animals survived in a Louisiana colony over an eight-year period 
(Jones and Suttkus, 1975). 
Population Trend: A state-by-state review of survey efforts for these bats was presented by 
Clark (2003), who noted that regular attempts at monitoring generally had not taken place due to 
numerous difficulties and challenges. These include frequent switching of roosts and resulting wide 
fluctuations in numbers from day to day (Clark, 2003; Gooding and Langford, 2004; see also 
