4881 
the cows could give a healthy supply of milk? 
I know of a case of typhoid fever where the 
cause was traced directly to milk coming 
from cows that had drunk from a spring 
brook into which the farm-house drain emp¬ 
tied, There Is nothing more certain than that 
the milk will he poisoned by impurities taken 
by the cow in the water she drinks. It will 
be noticed that if the cow feeds upon certain 
kinds of odorous weeds or vegetables, the 
inilk is affected thereby. I am sure that the 
water supplies of the dairy do not receive the 
attention they should. There should be no 
cess pools that the cattle can approach, for 
often cows have depraved tastes. I have 
known cows that would go by a spring of pure 
water and drink from the filthy drainage of 
the barn-yard. It requires the greatest care 
to secure pure milk, and likewise its products 
—butter and cheese. 
When we consider the solvent character of 
w nter, it is apparent that we should be careful 
regarding the means of conveying and storing 
it. Water acts upou lead and all other metals, 
and nothing that is objectionable should be 
used for storing it. The solvent action of 
water upou minerals iu the soil produces what 
we call hard water. These minerals are not 
necessarily harmful, but often give the water 
a more desirable taste. The harduess of the 
water is diminished by boiling, but boiled 
water is not palatable owing to the escape of 
gases which may be replaced by agitation. It 
is desirable to agitate water in wells to aerate 
it. There is no better device for this purpose 
thau the old-fashioned cbaiu pump, which has 
beeu improved very much of late. Tbesolvent 
power of water gives in its value for cleansing, 
and in face much of its desirable effect upon 
the stomach and system geuerally. 
SMUTS. 
No one in passing through a corn field just 
before the corn has fully matured, has failed 
to notice here and there a black, unsightly 
ear that had the appearance of having re¬ 
ceived a coating of soot; and every one who 
hus bandied such ears will remember how the 
hands and clothing were blackeued by the 
dust like powder. This fungus that attacks 
corn in the ear i- the smut of agriculturists; 
the Ustilago maidis of botanists. We also 
have smuts occurring on wheat, oats, and 
several other plants belonging to the order 
Gramiueae—Grass Family. The llowers of the 
common Smartweed (Polygonum Peuusyl- 
vauicum) and of the Arrow-leaved Tear-thumb 
(Polygonum sagittatuiu) are often found 
blackened and distorted by the attacks of 
Ustilago utriculosa and U. Candollei. 
Another smut lUrocystia pompholygodes) 
often attacks the little Wind Flower (Anemone 
Pennsylvania) causing the leaves and peti¬ 
oles to become swolleu and distorted. If we 
remove some of the black dust from a smutted 
ear of corn aud view it with a high power of 
the microscope, we will see that it consists of 
an Immense number of globular bodies. These 
bodies—called spores—are extremely minute; 
it ha■> been ascertained that about seven mil¬ 
lions of them would he contained within a 
space of one square inch. As stated above, I 
they are almost spherical, and the surface is 
covered with minute prickles. These spores | 
are the reproductive bodies, and they 
serve the same purpose as the seed of higher 
plants. They are formed in the following 
manner. Early in Spring, while the corn is 
yet young, ininnte colorless threads appear in 
the cells and intercellular spaces of the host 
plant; these threads-called mycelium—spread 
all through the tissue of their host until they 
finally reach the place of spore formation. 
The formation of spores usually occurs in the 
young ovaries, but it occasionally takes place 
in other parts of the plant. Just preceding 
the formation of spores, the extremities of 
some of the threads thicken and become more 
gelatinous; in a short time the spores become 
visible within this thick-walled bypha or 
thread (Fig. 442, a it); and when they have 
Fig. 443. 
Spore formation In TTstiliiKo maldls. A, the end of 
a spore fonnluK hyplia, containing a row of young 
spores; b, a spore nearly ripe; c, spores fully ma¬ 
tured; d, spore germinating. A and b. after Fischer 
von Waldheim; A b, x ISlio; o d, x 1600. 
attained their full size (Fig. 443, b), the hypha 
THE RORAL NEW-YORKER. 
breaks up and the spores become free (Fig. 
443, c). 
The spores are blown about by the wind and 
many are lost, but some of them are carried 
into the barn with the corn, and the following 
SpriDg they are ready to germinate and form 
a new crop of smutted ears. How the fuugus 
gains admittance into the tissues of the host 
plant is a question that yet remains un¬ 
answered. Many experiments have been 
made to determine the mode of entrance, but 
so far they have all failed. 
Wheat is often damaged by a smut or bunt 
that is knowu to botanists as Tilletia tritici. 
This fungus attacks the inner portion of the 
grain, anJ if we break open a grain of wheat, 
infested with this smut, weshall find the white 
farinaceous interior replaced by a black, 
stinking powder. The spores (Fig. 443 a) re- 
semole those of corn smut, except that they 
are usually connected by a number of delicate 
branching threads. In this species, when the 
time of spore formation approaches, the ex¬ 
tremities of the hypha give rise to little 
branches, the ends of which ultimately thicken 
and become spherical. These small, spherical 
bodies are the spores, and they are set free by 
the drying up of the threads. They germi¬ 
nate by sending out short, thick stems (Fig. 
443, b ), when the stem has attained a length 
about twice the diameter of the spore 
from which it sprang, a cluster of delicate 
branches form near the apex (Fig. 443, c); 
these eventually uuite by short transverse 
threads. Shortly after the branches unite 
they give rise to a third kind of fruit, 
(Fig. 443, 1 1), which in turn gives rise to 
auotber form (Fig. 143,e), which constitutes the 
fourth generation. With each succeeding 
generation, the reproductive bodies become 
smaller, and their power of inflicting injury 
becomes greater. Kuhn claims that when the 
slender hypha (Fig. 443, r) from the Inst germ - 
luating body, comes iu contact with growing 
wheat, it penetrates the cell walls (Fig. 413, f) 
and produces the mycelium which ultimately 
gives rise tospores of the flrst order iFig. I43,u). 
Wet weather favors the increase of most 
fungi, so that during a wet season smuts are 
most abundant. Many solutions have been 
recommended for destroying the spores of 
smuts, but usually the cost of washing the 
seed is more than the value of the grain tost 
from the attacks of the fungus. The follow¬ 
ing named smuts are also common: Ustilago 
earbo, the smut of oats, barley, etc.; U. neg- 
leeta on Foxtail Grass; U. segetum ou wheat 
and barley, and several others that are not 
common. B. T. galloway. 
Columbia. Mo. 
APPLICATION OF NITROGEN TO 
GROWING CROPS. 
If I may judge from a siugle experiment, 
I should say that Sir J. K. Lawes is right in 
saying that nitrogen for the growing crop 
should be applied early iu the season. 
About four acres of my potatoes are planted 
on an old aud rather poor pasture, broken last 
Autumn. A part of it received a dressing of 
75 bushels of bard-wood ashes to the acre; aud 
the remainder, 400 pounds of German potash 
salts to the acre, applied broadcast as soon as 
the snow was off in Spring. Commercial fer¬ 
tilizers of several brands, all represented to 
analyze about alike (eight to teu per cent, of 
phosphoric acid; two to three per cent, of 
ammonia; 0 to six per cent, of potash) were 
scattered along the drills at plantiug time, to 
Fig. 443. 
Tilletia tritici. A, longitudinal section of a gram 
of wheat infected with suiut; «. spores of smut; b, 
spore germinating; c, formutlou of sporldiaof the 
flrst ord* r; d, formation of sporldia of the second or¬ 
der; e, sporidium of the secoud order germinating; 
/. hypby of same penetrating the epidermis at o o. 
K. after Kuhn, x highly. B. section of flower of Poly¬ 
gonum bydroplper Infected with article smut (Ustll- 
ago utriculosa); C, spores of same, alter Tulasne. x. 
the extent of 400 pounds to the acre. I thought 
if this field lacked anything in the way of fer¬ 
tilizers, it was probably nitrogen, aud that T 
had here a good cbance to watch the effects of 
nitrogen when applied to the growing crop. 
Just before the second hoeing, the contents 
of a 200-pound sack of nitrate of soda were 
scattered along the rows over a portion of the 
field. The part that received this dressing, 
when measured, was found to be \% acre. 
This was not a large application to be sure; 
but it was certainly enough to give rise to 
the expectation that some effects from its use 
would be seen. I have beeu able to discover, 
however, no effect whatever from the applica¬ 
tion, either in increased growth or change of 
color of the tops. I can account for this only 
by the supposition that the nitrate of soda was 
applied too late to lie of benefit to the crop. 
Singularly enough, this field does not show the 
change of color to a yellowish shade where 
the potash salts were used, as I have noticed 
in former years. Another field where a 
heavy growth of clover was plowed in last 
Autumn, shows every foot to which the salts 
were applied by the color of the tops. I have 
half an acre in this field, planted according 
to the Rural trench system, a. o. bayley. 
Orleans Co., Vt. 
T s. GOLD. 
The universal custom in this part of Con¬ 
necticut (northwest) has been to sow grass 
seed with some grain crop. Little other seed 
is used, except Timothy and Red Clover. 
Eight quarts of Timothy aud two quarts of 
clover are a common allowance, though double 
the amount is sometimes applied. It was 
common to get a “good catch” until the last 
few years, so that with the old grass roots 
about the rocks surviving culture, a new 
thick turf was readily obtained. The repeated 
droughts of the last five years, or some other 
causes, have often destroyed the young plants. 
Of the spring grains, seeding takes much 
better with barley and wheat than with oats. 
The increased amount of seed grain used, 
making a closer shade, may in part account 
for failure of the grass. Formerly 2J-£ busnels 
of oats were sown to the acre; now from three 
to four bushels. The grass seed should be 
covered with a light bush or pressed by the 
roller. 
Timothy is sown with wheat or rye in the 
Fall, and clover added iu the Spring, or they 
may be both sown in the Spring and left on 
the surface or covered with a light bush or 
Thomas smoothing harrow. 
Red Top is used sometimes for permanent 
meadow in place of a part of the Timothy- 
half a bushel or bushel to the acre. The seed 
is very light aud chaffy, weighing only 15 
pounds per bushel, aod cheap. I have used 
Orchard Grass, one-half bushel or one bushel 
per acre, very satisfactorily. It is a very early 
grass, and when cut iu season, makes excel¬ 
lent hay. If allowed to ripen, it is little bet¬ 
ter than straw. Mixed with medium or early 
clover, it helps to hold the crop up aud is 
ready to cut at the same time. 
I have tried Alsike Clover once with good 
results, getting a fair crop, easily cured, be¬ 
tween Red and White Clover in character. 
The seed is costly, and adding the trouble and 
expense of gettiug it on the farms, this hin¬ 
ders its use. On lauds less natural for grass 
than ours, plowing and reseeding, without any 
grain crop, is practiced, with good success. 
Turn over the laud smoothly after haying, 
harrow in a good, fine compost, and seed with 
Timothy and Red Top. You lose no crop, as 
the next year you may expect a good burden 
of hay. With this summer seeding, a thin 
crop of white field turuips may be sown. The 
necessary conditions for a good growth of 
grass seed are, to have the laud of sufficient 
fertility and iu good tilth, and bright, clean 
seed. Seed the vitality of which has been in¬ 
jured by heating or otherwise, may sprout and 
then fail to produce vigorous plants. I thiDk 
some of the failures are due to this cause. 
Use ouly that which is cleau—we do not want 
to sow sorrel, daisies or any other weeds. 
Litchfield Co., Conn. 
ttnrtxl 
CROSS-BRED POTATOES. 
W. H. RAND. 
It is generally acknowledged by the major¬ 
ity of authorities that the word “hybrid” can¬ 
not be correctly applied to a variety resulting 
from either the natural or artificial cross-fer¬ 
tilization of two varieties of the same species; 
for instance, the cross lately made by Mr. 
Arthur Sutton, of Reading, England, between 
the species Solanum maglia and our common 
potato, Solanum tuberosum is, correctly 
speaking, a hybrid, and is probably the only 
true one which has been effected in this 
branch of the Solanum family. 
Mr. C. G. Pringle, who, some years ago in¬ 
troduced through a New York seed firm the 
so-called “Hybridized Potato Seed,” was prob¬ 
ably influenced in his use of this word by his 
studies of the botanical works of Lindley whom 
he considered an authority. There may still 
be a dispute as to the correct usage of the word; 
but I assume iu this instance that the major¬ 
ity are in the right, and adopt the term “cross¬ 
bred in reference to the results of crosses be¬ 
tween different varieties of the same species. 
While there is so much evident interest in 
the culture and improvement of the potato, it 
is astonishing to note how little acquainted 
with the peculiarities aud habits of individual 
varieties many growers are. It is, of course, 
a well known fact among all who grow the 
potato, that there are some varieties which 
never bear balls. Many of these, like the 
Old English White and Snowflake, rarely 
blossom; while others—the Early Rose, 
Beauty of Hebron and White Star, for in¬ 
stance—under favorable circumstances may 
blossom profusely, but are as barren of pollen 
as the former, and never bear" balls unless 
naturally or artificially fertilized. The rea¬ 
son for this cannot, of course, be given, more 
than that it is a peculiarity of the varieties. 
The various seedsmen's catalogues, espe¬ 
cially for the past few years, have, in describ- 
their potato novelties, given as the parentage 
of some varieties crosses that were simply 
impossible to make under any circumstances; 
for instance, a seed catalogue for 1SS4, issued by 
a prominent firm, offers a potato “originating 
with a celebrated hybridizer from a seed-ball 
of Brownell’s Superior fertilized with pollen 
from the Bur bank.” Suffice it to say, as 
many know, that while the Superior is a 
heavy producer of pollen, the Burbank has 
never been known to produce a particle. 
Even were the Burbank a pollen-bearing sort, 
the cross would be exceedingly difficult to 
make, and would require delicate art to ac¬ 
complish,as the anthers or stamens would have 
to be removed from the variety to be worked 
upon, before natural fertilization had taken 
place (that is, by its own pollen); the blossom 
would then have to be screened to insure it 
against impregnation by foreign pollen, and 
at just the proper time it must be worked by 
pollen from the variety used as the male pa¬ 
rent. To accomplish this successfully is very 
difficult, and when the fact is taken into 
consideration that it is claimed by some that 
a blossom may be naturally fertilized some 
time before it opens, the difficulty of crossing 
two perfect-flowering sorts is still more evi¬ 
dent; but wheu a person claims to have fer¬ 
tilized a perfect blossom with pollen from a 
variety that nover produced a particle, the 
statement is simply absurd. 
There are a score or more of the lately in¬ 
troduced varieties with alleged parentages 
just as impossible as the case mentioned. In 
this connection, Mr. Alexander must be mis¬ 
taken as to the parentage of his seedling, 
the Carnival, described on page 55 of the 
present volume of the R URal — ‘ 'said to be a 
cross between Dakota Red and Compton’s 
Surprise.” This must be a mistake, as Comp¬ 
ton’s Surprise never produces pollen, and the 
Dakota Red, so far with me, has shown no 
signs of a ball bearing tendency, aud indeed 
under the most favorable conditions hardly 
blossomed. I would not assert positively that 
it never bore pollen; but it has certainly shown 
no signs of it with me, but gave every indica¬ 
tion of a variety barren of pollen. 
The results of the crosses previously referred 
to as made by Mi-. Sutton, will be awaited 
with much interest; indeed,it is an interesting 
experiment from a scientific point of view, 
and it is to be hoped that the prime object of 
the experiment will be fully realized, viz., the 
obtaining of a variety naturally adapted to 
the wet and even marshy soils common iu 
Ireland and other portions of the British Isles. 
This can hardly be expected, however, from 
the direct results of the cross, as it is generally 
conceded that a hybrid usually partakes more 
of the character of the male parent than of 
the female. 
Chittenden Co., Vt. 
H\)t l)evi)smart. 
A MOUNTAIN OF MEAT. 
The Hereford cattle are steadily working 
their way into popularity in this country. 
At every beef exhibition aud fat stock show 
the famous “White Faces’’ are always seen at 
the front. Few breeds have been so much 
improved of late years. A comparison of the 
old-time Hereford with the square, “blocky’ 
auimal of to-uay. indicates a triumph in breed- 
