610 
SEPT U 
On August 28th last, after a season of severe 
suffering trom blight (undoubtedly communi¬ 
cated from large old, constantly blighting 
Hoopes Apple trees in an adjoining village 
lot), in a fit of desperation I painted the trunks 
of every young apple or crab on the place 
with thin white-lead and linseed-oil paint— 
say 50 in all: eight large trees 35 years plant¬ 
ed were not painted. This season several of 
the eight old trees were somewhat blighted 
about as' they had been last year, and the 
neighbor's old Hoopes trees were blighted 
very badly; but the painted young trees have 
nearly all escaped. I don’t believe there is 
over five per cent, of last year’s blight among 
them and what little there has been was most¬ 
ly directly under the large old blighting trees. 
The first fire-blight I saw among the young 
trees was on a young fall-transplanted, un¬ 
painted tree. The blighted limbs were cut 
off and the trunk was painted on June 15, with 
some thick brown paint which was also applied 
to young thrifty Russian pears with good re¬ 
sults. Linseed-oil alone may be as good; but up 
to date—August 5—I detect no harm from 
the paint on the trunks, though, of course, 
it is yet too soon to come to a final verdict. 
Harm may develop later; but I feel more and 
more sure that fire-blight is preventible. 
ANSWERED BY B. T. GALLOWAY. 
1. Recent investigations of the black-spot 
or black-rot of the tomato lead us to believe 
that this disease is due to the presence of a 
minute microscopic fungus, which, as a rule, 
attacks the flower end of the fruit, and by its 
growth within the tissues of the latter pro¬ 
duces the effects with which all are familiar. 
The black, velvet-like substance which covers 
the diseased parts is made up of thousands of 
spores or reproductive bodies, which are 
borne on short, dark-brown stalks. The 
spores germinate readily, and if a few of them 
are placed in the skin of a healthy tomato the 
disease soon manifests itself at that point. In 
regard to treatment, very little can be said, 
as, so far as I am aware, no experiments have 
been made having a bearing on this question. 
There is no doubt, however, that the fungus 
lives over-winter in the rotted fruit, and for 
this reason the latter, together with the old 
vines, should be burned after the first heavy 
frost. 
2. It has been pretty thoroughly settled that 
the so-called fire blight of the pear is due to a 
living organism, a germ or bacterium, which, 
developing in the sap, produces the effects 
with which we are familiar. Ten years ago 
Prof. T. J. Burrill noticed the connection of 
bacteria with blight, and since that time his 
observations and experiments, which have 
been verified by other scientific investi¬ 
gators, clearly demonstrate that a certain 
bacterium is the true cause of the trouble. 
The results of F. K. P.’s experiments m the 
treatment of this disease are interesting, as 
they would lead us to believe that it is possi¬ 
ble to protect the trees against the attacks of 
the germs. It is hardly probable that the 
treatment described would be practicable on 
a large scale, as in order to render the tree 
germ-prcof by this method, it must be literal¬ 
ly enveloped in a coating of oil or paint. The 
question here arises as to whether there are 
not some parts of the tree more vulnerable 
than the rest, through which the germs gain en¬ 
trance, and, it this is the case, whether we can 
not by rendering these parts germ-proof save 
the whole tree ? As a matter of fact, ic has 
been shown by careful observation that the 
two most vulnerable points for the attack of 
the blight germs are the flowers and the tips 
of the young branches. If these could in some 
cheap, practical and efficient manner, be pro¬ 
tected, it might be possible to hold the disease 
in check. As an experiment having a bear¬ 
ing on this question, I would suggest that next 
spring F. K. P. should select a half-dozen 
pear trees which are subject to blight and 
treat four of them as described below, leaving 
two for checks: 
About the time the flowers are opening, 
spray with a solution made by dissolving 
three ounces of carbonate of copper in one 
quart of ammonia diluted with water to 22 
gallons. With a good pump and nozzle a 
large tree can be thoroughly sprayed in a 
very few minutes. Care must be taken, how ¬ 
ever, to reach all parts of the tree. Repeat 
the sprayings—say every 10 days—until five 
applications have been made, and if the rem¬ 
edy has any value for the case in hand this 
ought to prove it. 
CREAM NOT RISING. 
S. S. K., Ellensburgh, Washington Ter. 
Why does my cream not rise ? The tempera¬ 
ture of my spring is 50 degrees. Just below 
it is a place in which the milk cans are placed 
just as soon as the milk in them has been 
strained. The cover is removed enough to 
let in the air. If the milk is left there three 
days and then skimmed, and;‘it is then left 
stand mg another night quite’a mess of cream 
rises. I have read of cream rising in 12 
hours ; w r hat is the matter with mine ? My 
cans are 18 inches high and eight in diameter. 
Is the ttmperature too high or too low ? 
ANSWERED BY HENRY STEWART. 
The difficulty is unquestionably in the tem¬ 
perature, which has much to do with the sep¬ 
aration of the cream from milk. TP hen it is 
considered that at 32 degrees water is solid and 
at 33 degrees it is liquid and this great differ¬ 
ence in condition is due to only one degree of 
temperature, every person who has to do with 
milk and cream should realize the effect of 
temperature and the absolute necessity of 
using a thermometer. Cold and heat are rel¬ 
ative, and appear very different to the sense 
of feeling from what they really are under 
varying circumstances. When the heat of the 
air is 90 degrees, water at 60 feels very cold, 
and quite as much so as water at 40 degrees 
with the air at 60 degrees, so that your 
“really cold water” may be really no colder 
than 60 degrees which is the best temperature 
for setting milk in shallow pans; while for 
the deep pails you are using 45 degrees is the 
right temperature. Even very cold springs 
are rarely as cold as 50 degrees in tLe summer, 
and while deep pails may be used in water of 
this temperature the cream will not be fully 
separated before 24 hours, while with water 
at 45 degrees 12 hours will be sufficient and 
even six hours at 35 cr 40 degrees. 
A thermometer should be used to test the 
temperature (one will cost 25 cents only) and 
if, as appears probable, the temperature of the 
spring is not less than 55 or* 60 degrees, the 
milk should be set in the common stone-ware 
jars used for the purpose, which are about 
eight inches deep and seven inches wide, as 
these take up less room than the tin pans used 
for shallow setting; or tin pails not more than 
seven or eight inches deep and holding about 
six quarts may be used. There will then be 
no trouble in getting the cream. 
LIMING LAND. 
A. J ., Lincoln Park , N. J.— I want to seed 
down a piece of ground with grass along 
with rye. It needs a coat of lime, as there 
is a good deal of sorrel in it. After plow¬ 
ing the ground and applying a good coat 
of manure and cultivating, would it do to put 
on a good coat of lime, and harrow it in? 
Would the lime interfere with the action of 
the manure? 
Ans. —Lime is not necessarily antagonistic 
to sorrel: Decause sorrel is acid and lime alka¬ 
line. It by no means follows that lime will kill 
out the sorrel. Sorrel will grow luxuriantly 
about lime-kilns, and especially on land where 
piles of timber have been buined in clearing, 
and yet the ashes contain 30 to 60 per cent, of 
lime. But sorrel, as well as other weeds, may 
be run out by enriching the land, so that the 
crops will smother the weeds. It is quite 
common in localities where lime is used reg¬ 
ularly to manure the land, plow it, and then 
apply the lime, harrowing it in. The action 
of the lime is not at all injurious, but rather 
beneficial, as it tends to decompose the man¬ 
ure, and develop nitrogen compounds in the 
soil, and so largely favors the growth of the 
grain crop and the grass and clover which 
succeed it. This practice is quite common in 
parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, where 
the most success!ul and thrifty farmers are to 
be found. 
Mlscellaneonc. 
M. B P., Henderson, N. C. —I send the 
Rural the leaves and a twig of a bush that 
grows here in the woods and fields and by the 
road-sides; what is its name? 
Ans. —It is the Wild Papaw (Asimina 
triloba.) The fruit is very good to eat. But 
it contains too many large seeds in proportion 
to its amount of pulp to render it of much 
value for market purposes. In home use, 
however, it is desirable and a pleasant change. 
G. R. W., Lyndon, Ky. —What is the ori¬ 
gin and parentage of the Amber Queen Grape 
and also of Norwood and Arnold’s Hybrids, 
1, 2, 5, 8 and 16? 
Ans. —We do not remember the originator. 
It is said to be a cross between Marion and 
Black Hamburg. Norwood is a Labrusca. 
Arnold’s No. 1 Clinton and Blaek Hamburg; 
No. 2 Clinton and Black St. Peters; No. 5 
Clinton and Golden Chasselas; No. 8 Clinton 
and Black St. Peters; No. 16 Clinton and 
Black St. Peters. 
W.R. U., Bake Oven, Oregon. —What are 
the principles on which the various sheep¬ 
shearing machines are constructed ? 
Ans. —We do not know that these machines 
are made in this country. We have heard of 
their use in Australia and presume they are 
manufactured in England. The principle 
employed is that of a horse clipper run by a 
machine similar to that used by dentists, by 
foot or steam power. It is said that the ma¬ 
chines are not fully successful yet and that 
they cannot be used on Merino Sheep. 
A. A. M., Walworth, N. Y. —Would it be 
advisable to mix plaster in equal parts with 
hen manure and ashes? The ashes are un¬ 
leached and the hen droppings have been ac¬ 
cumulating for several years. What amount 
of the mixture should be drilled in with wheat 
this fall? 
Ans.*— Our way would be to sow the hen 
manure and ashes separately and harrow, 
not drill in. The amount is a quostion for 
our inquirer to decide. We know nothing of 
the present condition or fertility of the land. 
You need scarcely be afraid of using too 
much of the ashes. All the way from two to 
five barrels of the hen manure may be used. 
DISCUSSION. 
COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
Frank Hadley, Union County, N. J.— 
An article on the Country School, page 550, 
while containing some excellent suggestions, 
is decidedly Utopian in other respects. The 
first three questions suggested may apply 
truthfully to many, if not to most, of the 
primary grades of our city and village schools, 
but I am of the opinion that they are uncalled 
for as applied to what are commonly known 
as country schools, i. e. to those outside the 
cities and villages. The average duration of 
the public schools of the United States, ac¬ 
cording to the report of the Commissioner of 
Education for 1887, is 27 weeks per year. As 
the city and village schools generally approx¬ 
imate 40 weeks per year, it will readily be 
seen that some of the country schools fall far 
below this average, while few of them exceed 
it to any extent. As children are usually 
confined in the country schools only about 
five hours daily, for five days per week, I 
think there is little danger of their “ making 
haste ” too rapidly, or of “ drawing too heav¬ 
ily upon the nervous force of childhood.” In 
all my experience in country schools as pupil, 
teacher and looker on, I have observed more 
injuries to children during the hours of recre¬ 
ation than ever were suffered mentally by 
too close confinement or application. The 
suggestions contained in the last two questions 
are valuable. Anything that will lead the 
child to closer habits of observation, to a more 
careful study of the myriad forms of animal, 
vegetable and insect life with which ho is 
so constantly surrounded, will lead to a higher 
appreciation of the beauties of Nature, and a 
greater love for rural life. The country- 
dweller is constantly surrounded by 
so many interesting objects (hat it 
is too bad that his interest should not be a wak¬ 
ened to their beauties when a child at school. 
The pupil in the country school should learn the 
names, uses and distinguishing characteristics 
of the common plants he daily sees. Then he 
should be taught to observe how others resem¬ 
ble these and thus to group similar ones to¬ 
gether. Do not frighten the wits out of the child 
by telling him that he must study botany; when 
he studies plants he is studying botany pure 
and simple, but he doesn’t know it. The main 
object is to get him interested, to arouse the 
spirit of investigation. He should learn of 
the birds and animals he daily sees, the insects 
by which he is surrounded. He should learn 
their habits and mode of life, should know 
which are the friends and which the foes of 
the farmers; should be taught to protect those 
which are beneficial. These and many other 
kindred subjects should have a place in our 
country schools. Then the practical applica¬ 
tion of the common branches taught should 
be enforced. I have seen scholars well ad¬ 
vanced in ordinary branches, who could not 
acertain the number of cords in a pile of wood 
of given dimensions; who could not find the 
cost of plastering a room of certain size and 
shape, or tell how much carpet was necessary 
to cover the floor. Many who can conjugate, 
decline, parse, and give all the rules and defi¬ 
nitions in an ordinary grammar, could not 
write an ordinary letter correctly. These and 
many other practical things should be taught. 
When the people demand them they will be, 
but there will be some tremendous shaking 
among the dry bones of educators first. 
THE RURAL’S NEW CUTS—WESTERN 
PRACTICES. 
J. M. D., Minnesota City, Minn —The 
Rural for August 24, with its new super- 
calendered paper and consequently improved 
photo-engravings, came to-day and I have 
been comparing it with old, back numbers. 
How much we owe to photography and the 
new methods of cheaply reproducing photo¬ 
graphic pictures ! To comprehend and appre¬ 
ciate our present blessings fully, one has to 
compare the pictures of the Jerseys aud the 
blackberries in this week’s issue with the pic¬ 
tures of stock and fruit to be found in old 
numbers of Moore’s Rural. The reader 
who would pass by that “group of grade Jer¬ 
seys” as an ordinary picture of a lot of cows, 
is incapable of getting what he should from a 
good pappr. The words, “From a photo¬ 
graph” under the picture, are not needed to 
distinguish it from an ordinary engraving. 
The Rural’s idea of having its readers send 
photographs of useful implements, etc., is a 
most excellent one. Hundreds will be inter¬ 
ested in the promised picture of Mr. Terry’s 
tools and machinery. This morning, as one 
of our men started for market with 95 bushels 
of barley, I longed for a camera so that I 
might show the Rural readers how it was 
done. In this section where the roads are not 
so good or so wide as in Ohio, it would be im¬ 
practicable to use Mr. Terry’s three-horse 
wagon; so, as the next best plan, we use four 
horses and a rather heavy wagon with low, 
wide-tired wheels. This plan saves the labor 
of one man and one wagon. We are three 
miles from the station, and make four trips a 
day. Forty-five sacks of grain make a rather 
high load; but with fairly good roads there 
is no trouble. We bind the load with ropes 
extending from the braces under the foot¬ 
board, back over the load and down to the 
rear axle. Four horses accustomed to pulling 
together make a powerful team, and are easi¬ 
ly handled. We always use four on the bind¬ 
er even when three would pull it easily 
enough; for the reason that the lead team 
can pull the machine around at the corners of 
the field so much more easily than could those 
on the tongue. For the lead team we use a 
light set of whiffletree8 with large harness 
snaps for hooks—these never come unhooked 
without help. The leaders’ lines should ex¬ 
tend directly back to the driver without pass¬ 
ing through any rings on the bridles or har¬ 
ness of the tongue team; in this way they 
will be free, so that the driver may use them 
to slap the leaders if they are inclined to be 
lazy. If a gentle slap with the line is not 
enough to keep a leader up to his work, fill 
the tool-box full of small stones and use one 
occasionally, always calling the horse sharply 
by his name just before the stone hits him. 
Of course, no Rural reader will misunder¬ 
stand me and think that I would use cobble 
stones; a stonei larger than a hickory-nut 
would be too large to throw at a horse. A 
horse that would need touching up oftener 
than once or twice a day should not be used 
on the lead. Don’t attempt to use a whip 
long enough to reach the leaders, especially 
on a binder; it would take too much time to 
disentangle it from whiffletree-hooks, reel, 
packer shaft, etc. 
pasturing meadows. 
H. L. W., Newbern, Virginia.— In re¬ 
gard to pasturing meadows after mowing, I 
am inclined to the opinion that, as a rule, it is 
a bad practice. If it were done in modera¬ 
tion—not closely—say from November 
15th to December 15th, it would not be so 
very objectionable; but it is customary here 
to stack the hay on the meadows, and feed 
it out to cattle on the land all through the 
winter till late in spring. As a consequence, 
the grass is cropped till the earth is bare, and 
the soil, especially if clay, is tramped as 
solid as a brickyard. It is easy to see that all 
the droppings and waste from the cattle will 
not compensate for the injury done. 
Meadows composed of Timothy or clover and 
Timothy, suffer the most injury. Timothy 
makes comparatively little aftermath—scarce¬ 
ly any when cut late, and needs all it 
makes for its protection. Sprouting from a 
bulb very near the surface, it is easily de¬ 
stroyed, if that is bitten off or crushed from 
tramping. Orchard Grass makes an abund¬ 
ant aftermath, which can be grazed closely 
without sustaining any serious damage. Blue 
Grass makes a sod so close and firm that 
poaching does not injure it to any extent. 
Sandy soils are often benefited by feeding on 
them, the firming given in this way being 
just what they need, nor are they injured in 
wet weather as other soils are. On the whole, 
I should not advise the pasturing of Timothy 
or clover meadows at a>l, unless in the case of 
the latter, there might be chances of the after¬ 
growth smothering out the plants, as I have 
known occasionally to happen; but Orchard, 
Blue and grusses of a similar character might 
be cropped till the coming of very cola or wet 
weather. 
blighted hopes—blighted vines. 
“ A Despondent Contestant," Boon- 
ville, N. Y.—Alas! How often do our an¬ 
ticipations exceed our realizations? Last 
spring how joyfully we planted our prize po¬ 
tato patch, taking extra pains with it, firmly 
believing at the time that in the fall that 
wonderful patch would walk off with one of 
the first prizes, besides supplying all the city 
markets too, thus making us millionaires be¬ 
fore 1890 could be ushered in. Alas for hu¬ 
man calculations! Little did we think we’d 
