THE RURAL NEW-YORKER. 
planted in the open ground about three feet 
apart. 
Farmers who have uo hot-bods, need not, 
however, be deprived of tomatoes on that ac¬ 
count. The seed may be sown in the begin¬ 
ning of May or even in the latter part of 
April. For a seed bod, choose ft light soil, 
in a sheltered spot or, better still, in front 
of a wall facing south. Prepare the bed 
well and sow the seed either broadcast or in 
rows a few inches apart, cover it lightly, and 
when the plants are about two inches high, 
transplant them to a similar bed. Another 
transplanting will strengthen them, though it 
may be dispensed with. In Juue these plants 
may be set in the garden, and though the crop 
will not be an early one, it will be as valuable 
for home use. 
In private gardens, where a comparatively 
small crop is grown, the plants should never 
be allowed to lie on the ground. Either sup¬ 
port them with brush, like peas, or, better 
still, erect a trellis by pulling down a few posts 
and drawing wires horizontally through holes 
in them, or instead of wires use simply some 
strips of wood, as shown in the engraving, to 
which the branches should be tied. By this 
method more fruit will he produced, and as it 
is more exposed to the sun, it will ripen earlier. 
Exhaustive lists of varieties are given in 
every seed catalogue, and people differ as to 
which varieties are the best. When the plants 
are raised iu the open ground, early, smooth 
varieties are to be preferred. The engravings 
represent Early Red Smooth and Acme Red 
Smooth, the picture of the latter being about 
two-thirds of its natural size. 
scattered indiscriminately throughout the en¬ 
tire top, intermingled with the healthy branch¬ 
es ? These questions have not as yet been satis¬ 
factorily answered. 
That the disease is distinct from the pear 
blight is, I think, clearly shown by the fact 
that no disco] oration of the leaves accompanies 
its appearance ; and by its not extending down¬ 
ward and thereby affecting the matured wood. 
It is only iu exceptional eases, that it shows 
itself lacking in Unit cancerous character which 
marks the pear blight. Still, although lackiug 
that cancerous characteristic, yet I would rec¬ 
ommend iu this, as iu all similar cases, the cut¬ 
ting off of every diseased part thoroughly and 
surely, if for no other reason than to prevent 
the untidy appearance the affected limbs would 
give, if allowed to remaiu. InatteutionTo such 
matters always affords evidence of a degree of 
carelessness and neglect, which will never be 
found to characterize the successful fruit¬ 
grower. 
Ontario Co., N. Y. 
ance of theories fouuded on mere conjecture, 
if unsupported by reliable and substantial facts. 
The twig blight to which I now propose to 
refer, is not a new disease, although it never 
had attracted special attention or caused alarm 
in central New York until within the last five 
or six years. It was described some forty years 
ago by A. J. Downing, as “ a bligbt which 
occasionally kills, suddenly, the ends of the 
Apple aud Quince.” The appearance of this 
blight in this portion of the State was first 
noticed iu 1872, but the indications were so 
rare during that season that no special atten¬ 
tion was given to the matter. The same watt 
true during the succeeding year, although, to 
the careful observer, the disease was evidently 
on the increase; but in 1874 the disease became 
so apparent as to attract the attention of the 
most casual observer aud to excite feelings of 
alarm, as but few localities in the central por¬ 
tion of the State were found to be exempt from 
it. Consequently, more attention has been 
given to It, and various theories have been ad¬ 
vanced as to Its cause ; but as yet it does not 
appear that any satisfactory conclusion has 
been reached, or any sure remedy discovered, 
although investigations have been continued 
up to the present time. Happily this blight 
seems to have, in some degree, abated; yet, as 
it is liable to return at any time, the matter 
still retains its interest in the mind of the 
observant fruit-grower, and the question still 
remains undecided as to what it is and what is 
its cause. 
This much we know, that although it some¬ 
times affects the Fear and the Quince, its main 
field of operation is the apple orchard, and it 
may therefore be appropriately termed an 
apple blight. It differs from the frozen-sap 
blight in appearing at a different season of 
the year; and from the pear blight in its being 
confined mainly to the ends of the twigs and 
the smaller branches, never attacking the 
trunk or large branches, and but rarely any 
matured wood. It is generally confined to 
the uew growth of the season, its appearance'' 
beiug manifested in the latter part of June or/ 
early in July, usually somewhat simultaneous -j 
ly with the time for the pear blight proper. 
Hence the mistake, which many have made, 
of confounding the two when both chance to 
appear in the same season. But to the careful 
observer they will be found to be essentially 
different in several respects. The blight of 
which I am speaking, usually commences at 
the base of the uew growth of wood; that is, 
at the suture joint, or ring which marks the 
division between the growth of the preceding 
and the current year, in the slender branches, 
which arc the first to be affected. This new 
growth begins to wither and die. as is indicated 
by the wilting of the leaves, which furnishes 
the first indications of the disease. If the 
withered branch is permitted to remain, the 
disease occasionally extends backwards or 
downwards, kiUing a portion or the whole of 
the growth of the preceding year, but rarely 
extending further. 
I have been thus particular in describing this 
disease, that it may not be confounded with 
other forms of tree blight, as is too frequently 
done. And the question very properly arises, 
in regard to tilts form of blight, “What is it, 
aud what is its cause?” It is, perhaps, much 
easier to determine what it is not than what it 
really is. Mr. A. J. Downing was inclined to 
attribute this and the common pear blight to 
an insect; and while his explanation of the 
&ap-blight is doubtless correct in part, yet as it 
involves a still mooted question in regard to 
the circulation of sap, I should hesitate to ac¬ 
cept his entire theory as unquestionable au¬ 
thority. The insect theory has, I think, been 
pretty generally abandoned by recent investi¬ 
gators. My own careful examination, made 
in several hundreds of cases with a glass of 
high magnifying power, have failed to detect 
the presence of an}' insect or any indication j 
whatever of the work of insects. I conclude, i 
therefore, that this explanation is merely cou- | 
Jeetural. Another theory attributes this form | 
of blight to the effects of electricity. But this H 
theory, although hastily indorsed by some" 
persons of acknowledged scientific attainment, 
is equally unsatisfactory, inasmuch as it also 
lacks the evidence to sustain it. The only 
evidence I have ever kuowu to be presented iu 
its support, is the mere fact that, it usual!}' first 
appears at that season of the year when the 
atmosphere is most liable to be sur-charged 
with electricity, as is indicated by frequent 
thunder storms. But a moment’s reflection 
must satisfy us that this theory is at variance 
Avith all our former experience. As already 
stated, the disease first made its appearance in 
central Ncav York iu 1872, and I am not yet 
aware that that and the succeeding four or 
five years Avhen our orchards suffered the most 
from it, were exceptional years, so far as elec¬ 
tricity is concerned, or in any degree essen¬ 
tially different from the years which preceded 
them for a long time, during which the disease 
Avas unknown here. And Avhy is one branch 
affected, Avhile another, by its side and in an 
equally exposed situation, escapes unscathed ? 
Why is not one side or portion of the tree-top 
affected, instead of the injured branches being 
of the leaves in elaborating and evaporating 
the sap, is checked by the light pressure of the 
atmosphere and its being saturated with mois¬ 
ture, with a lack of wind and suuskine. This 
causes a plethora of sap iu the branches of the 
tree, and with such weather as described, this 
sap speedily becomes vitiated or staguant, 
ready to invite fungus action or fermentation. 
Then the. fungus spores—which are abundant 
in the atmosphere at such times, and are set¬ 
tled on the bark—at once find access through 
some crevice or puncture, or through the pores 
of the bark itself, and Die work of death goes 
on rapidly, like the operation of yeast in 
dough, which is another form of fungus 
growth. Any one who will peel off the bark 
from a few branches, as soon as the blight has 
affected the leaves, will distinctly perceive the 
smell of fermentation. If the Aveather speedily 
becomes cooler and bright, the disease may 
spread quite slowly, aud perhaps not affect 
the Avhole tree. Iu such ease, also, it may be 
stopped, if the affected limbs are cut off as 
soon as the evil is seen. Trees that Avere in¬ 
jured by the Aviuter, in tbu manner I have 
stated, are the first to be affected with blight, 
because their sap is already A'itiated, and only 
needs the kind of Aveather described, to set the 
fungus at work therein. Hence the reason 
why the worst seasons of blight follow severe 
winters. 
THE PREVENTIVE MEASURES, 
suggested by this theory of blight, are exactly 
those that have long been found beneficial. 
First of all, choose such land for a pear orchard 
as is least liable to be affected by drought— 
deep, clayey loam, Avith no hard-pan as a sub¬ 
soil, where the roots can descend out of the 
reach of sun-heat, and find moisture. Those 
who have pear trees on soil not of such depth, 
should mulch the surface plentifully, to pre¬ 
serve the roots from drought, and thus 6ave 
the trees from shedding their foliage prema¬ 
turely. Attention to this would, in my opinion, 
preA'ent ax least one-half the losses from pear 
blight in Ohio. 
Preventing oyer-luxuriant growth of trees 
will also be necessary on rich soils, by seeding 
the ground to clover or grass for a few years 
at a time, after the trees have maHe fair growth 
and are commencing to bear. Where there 
are in an orchard some trees that Avill bear to 
have their growth stimulated a little, while 
the rest need clover, give the former surface- 
mulchings of manure. With such mulching, 
applied each season, the orchard may be kept 
perpetually in grass or clover, without injury. 
Washing the entire surface of the bark with 
anti-fnngus liquids, like carbolic acid soap¬ 
suds—two ouuces of the crude acid and tAvo 
quarts of soft soap to tAvo gallons of hot water, 
wetting all the branches as avoII as the trunk 
of the tree—will be found highly useful. So 
also is the lime and sulphur wash, long used 
with good effect by Mr. Saunders of Washing¬ 
ton. It is made by putting half a bushel of 
quick-lime and six pounds of sulphur in a tight 
barrel, and pouring iu six gallous of boiling 
water. Cover and let stand till the lime is 
slaked, then add enough cold water to bring it 
to the consistence of thin whitewash. It is 
important that all the branches should be 
covered with the Avash; and this is most easily 
done by means of a garden syringe or a hand 
force pump, of which there are suitable kinds 
at most city hardware stores. Of course, the 
best time for the application is in the early 
part of summer, before the blighting weather 
occurs. I believe that the carbolic Avash will 
be found as effective as the lime aud sulphur, 
and being cheaper as Avell as more cleanly iu 
its use, I giA'e it the preference. 
Lake Co., O. 
TOMATO iLycopersicum esculentum). 
The Tomato is a favorite vegetable Avith the 
American people, and it fully merits ail the 
attention it receives. Near our large cities, 
hundreds of acres are planted every year for 
WHAT SHOULD BE TAUGHT IN THE COM 
MON SCHOOLS 1 
PROFE8SOR AV. J. BEAL 
This subject lias received much attention 
from all classes of persons; some advocate more 
time for arithmetic ; some, more time for gram¬ 
mar, or spelling, or geography, or writing, or 
reading. Many have urged that a place be 
made in the common schools for other topics, 
each speaking a good Avord for his favorite. 
Bo, almost every study found in our college 
courses, has had its advocates as the study 
much uoeded in the cotnmou school. Thus 
we have had advocates for history, agri¬ 
culture, geometry, botany, zoology, chemistry, 
physics, astronomy, Latin, French, book-keep¬ 
ing, etc., etc. 
The mind of a child is not capable of con¬ 
tinued close attention to one subject for a long¬ 
time. Changes aud rest must come often. 
Our best educators are slowly changing their 
vieAvs as to what is most valuable for girls and 
boys to be taught in school, borne twenty-five 
years ago, much stress avus laid on the study 
of English Grammar. The Avriter well remem¬ 
bers that he knew hut little about grammar 
after having studied it for live terms. Proba¬ 
bly the teachers were poor and the pupil 
unusually dull, but there are many poor teach¬ 
ers aud many dull pupils. The writer thinks 
that Page was right, when he declared that 
grammar was one of the higher or difficult 
studies. Pupils are required to decline nouns, 
conjugate verbs, parse every Avord, and learn 
a long list of rules and their exceptions. Com¬ 
mon people and some pupils, said that, after 
aU of this study, they did not sjieak aud write 
correctly. The ansAvers by the advocates of 
grammar were varied and unsatisfactory. The 
same questions have been repeated till even 
teachers begin to think that the time spent in 
the old-fashioned >vay of studying grammar 
Avas time poorly spent. 
I take a few sentences from The Teachers' 
Institute: “ We lay down the broad proposition 
that a child is not taught to write aud speak 
the English lauguage correctly by stndying 
English Grammar; such a claim is a visionary 
one. The best pupil in English Grammar, 
measured iu the school, is the one who can 
recite its rules the most glibly ; it is not the 
one >vho uses the language with ease and accu¬ 
racy. He spends days, weeks and months iu 
learning the classification of words, not only 
that nouns are common and proper, but col- 
f lectivc, verbal, and abstract, also.” He learns 
that verbs are regular, irregular, redundant, 
defective, transitive, passive or neuter, but he 
does not learn to speak aud write correctly. 
But let us consider what it is best for the 
beginner to study—the average boy or girl of 
a poor, illiterate family, the child avLio Avill 
probably spend but a few terras in the school. 
Such a child haB had no benefits of Avhat may 
be called home culture. For such a child, 
reading, writing and spelling are of the first 
Importance. Arithmetic has probably been 
overestimated. 
In reading, it is important that the child 
become interested and have books and papers 
ahvays before him. In this Avay, he will ac¬ 
quire a habit of reading and Avill pick up much 
outside of school. The teacher must strive to 
EARLY RED SMOOTH. 
market purposes, and, if we take private gar¬ 
dens into account, hundreds more are planted 
throughout the country. As an early crop, the 
Tomato commands a high price in the market, 
and enterprising gardeners strive to outdo one 
another in producing the first; but, in this 
case, like all other early vegetables, large 
quantities are shipped North from Southern 
ports, Aveeks before they ripen in the North. 
It does not require a rich soil, as it induces too 
strong a growth of the vinos, and. though there 
will be a proportional increase of fruit, it will 
ripen later. A sandy loam is to be preferred 
to a heavier soil. Beiug a tender plant, the 
seed cannot be sown in the open ground till all 
danger of frost is over and Avarm days set In, 
which will vary Avith the latitude from the end 
of March to the end of May. 
For an early crop, the plants must, therefore, 
be raised in a hot-bed. Avbere the seed should be 
THE APPLE ORCHARD.-No. 3 
CLINTON, 
The Twig Blight. 
Spread of tiie disease; uncertainty as to Us na¬ 
ture and origin; its difference from frozen sap 
and pear blight; its first indication ; theories as 
to Us cause; objections to them ; topping off 
diseased branches. 
To the fruit-grower anything affecting the 
health or vigor of his fruit-boaring trees, 
shrubs, plants or vines, is a matter of direct 
interest. If the fruit be such as euters largely 
into consumption by the people, then the sub¬ 
ject becomes one of general interest, as affect¬ 
ing Die comfort or prosperity <>f that people. 
In view of these introductory premises we may 
readily perceive why a feeling of alarm has so 
largely pervaded the minds of the French peo¬ 
ple in consequence of the spread of the Phyl¬ 
loxera through their hitherto flourishing and 
productiA’e vineyards, threatening their entire 
destruction, if unchecked. 
Iu considering that peculiar form of blight 
upon the apple tree, which is the immediate 
subject of this article, let us be careful to avoid 
a confusion of terms and the confouudiug of 
diseasesAvhich are quite dissimilar in character, 
although they may be productive of similar re¬ 
sults—an error into which many pomologists 
have fallen from lack of sufficient investiga¬ 
tion. Let us also carefully avoid the accept- 
ACME RED SMOOTH. 
sown in the last half of March. When the 
plants are about an inch and a half to tivo 
inches high, they are transplanted under an¬ 
other sash. Later, to induce the growth of 
roots, they are again transplanted tAVice, or at 
least once more, giving them more space each 
time as they increase in size. When tough, 
stout plants are thus produced, they are lifted, 
with a ball of earth adhering to the roots, and 
