THE RURAL NEW-YORKER. 
begin to assume any resemblance to its present 
double-wedged form. 
The first improvement in the shape of the 
implement was to make it in the form of a 
wedge acting horizontally, so as to push the 
furrow to one side aud so give room for the 
next furrow. At about the same time another 
modification of the plow was introduced, 
which, instead of pushing the furrow to one 
side, raised it up and allowed the plow to pass 
under it. Both of these modifications were 
valuable, and it is largely to a combination of 
the two that we owe the plow of to-day. Push¬ 
ing the furrow to one side was a convenience, 
and raising it up and allowing it to fall back 
was a benefit by securing greater pulverization; 
but still another feature was to be added before 
the plow could approach perfection. So long 
as the work was performed by a plow acting 
either horizontally or perpendicularly, the 
same soil always remained at or very near the 
surface, aud soon became exhausted by re¬ 
peated croppings. To insure the greatest fer¬ 
tility, the soil must not only be loosened, but 
fresh soil must be supplied by bringing the 
earth up from below and burying the exhausted 
portions until they are so recruited by the 
action of the elements ae to be capable of pro¬ 
ducing another crop. This can easily he accom¬ 
plished by inverting the furrow, an operation 
which requires something more than a simple 
wedge. From this we have the three me¬ 
chanical operations to be performed by the 
plow, namely, to raise, move to one side and 
to invert the furrow-slice. 
From about the year 1500 these three objects 
have beeu kept in view iu the manufacture of 
plows, but until quite recently with very indiffer¬ 
ent success, as there were no definite rules fore 
giving to the share aud mold-board their 
proper shape. All blacksmiths and most farm¬ 
ers were plow-makers guided entirely by the 
eye, and no two plows were made haviug ex¬ 
actly the same form. 
Origin of the Present Plow. 
Thomas Jefferson, third President of the 
United States, was the first one who attempted 
to apply mathematical rules to the construc¬ 
tion of the plow, and was the first to introduce 
into America the use of cast-iron mold-boards. 
Jefferson’s theory was that the form of the 
mold-board should be that of a regularly curved 
surface, presenting straight Hues iu a direction 
parallel to that iu which the furrow-slice 
moves over it. This plow was rude and imper¬ 
fect, but his work was of inestimable value, 
and it is to his efforts more than to those of 
any other one man that the plow owes its 
present form. By a somewhat complicated 
formula he attempted to make a “ perfect 
plow ”—one which should be a universal model 
—and succeeded iu making a plow which was 
a great advance upon any other in use. 
Since his time, numberless improvements 
have been made, but this principle has been 
kept in view in them all—that the raising aud 
turning of the furrow slice should be gradual 
and continuous from the moment when the 
share enters the ground. 
General Principle* of Construction, 
A “model plow” is an impossibility, as its 
form must vary with the work to be accom¬ 
plished and the soil in which it is to be used. 
1 here are, however, a few geueral principles 
which will apply to all plows. A body will fall 
more rapidly on a curved surface than on an 
inclined plane, ami more rapidly on a cycloi¬ 
dal curve—that is, a curve formed by a point 
on the circumference of a wheel when the 
wheel is rolled upon a Hat surf ace—than on the 
arc of a circle. We may, therefore, iufer that 
a body will be more easily raised and thrust to 
one side on a cycloidal curve than wlieu moved 
in any other direction. As a matter of fact we 
fiud that plows iu which this curve is employed— 
ibe point of least curvature being at the point 
of the share where it enters the ground, the 
curve extending from there nearly or quite to 
the top of the wing where the furrow-slice 
leaves it—raise aud turn the furrow more easily 
than do plows of any other form. In many 
plows,especially in those made by country plow- 
makers, we fiud this line a segment of a circle, 
a very serious fault, as it increases the draft 
from twenty to twenty-live per cent. 
With plows having the same width of share, 
the degree of pulverization effected will vary 
greatly with the distauee from the point of the 
share to the cud of the wing, the greater the 
distance and the less abrupt the twist given to 
the furrow-slice, the less It will be broken aud 
crushed. For this reasou, plows intended for 
breaking sod ground where it is desired to lay 
the furrow as fiat as possible, are often double 
the length ol those used where thorough pul¬ 
verization of the soil is desired. The longer 
the mold-board and the sharper the wedge 
form of the share, the more gradual will be 
the raising and turning of the furrow-slice and. 
theoretically, the lighter will he the draft; 
but, practically, we find wlieu the length of 
the mold-board exceeds a certain proportion 
to the width of the share, that the increased 
friction of the furrow-slice more than makes 
up for its lengthened curve, so that oven when 
we desire to lay the furrow-sUee perfectly flat, 
I 
wc cannot economically increase the length of 
the mold-board to more than about three times 
the width of the share. The exact 
Proportion of Length to Ureadth. 
has never beeu definitely settled, hut in nearly 
three hundred careful tests made during the 
past two years, plows haviug the following 
measurements have shown the lightest draft, 
while their work has beeu fully equal to that of 
any of nearly fifty patterns which have been sim¬ 
ilarly tested. Nos. 1. 2. and 3 were all tested 
hard that glass can be cut with it as with a 
diamond. Plows made of this steel not only 
last longer, but do their work more easily than 
those made of iron or common steel. Many 
farmers object to haviug the share made of this 
hardened steel, because wheu taken to the 
blacksmith to be sharpened the temper is in¬ 
variably spoiled and the share made softer 
than ordinary 6teel. This objection is a very 
slight one, however, as the share can be sharp¬ 
ened on the grindstone as well and as quickly 
on stubble ground and were required to pul¬ 
verize thoroughly a furrow eight Inches deep. 
Nos. 1, and 2 were common two-horse plows. 
No. 3. was a sulky plow. No. 4 was a sod 
plow made by the manufacturers of No. 8. 
No. 5 was a two-horse sod plow. Nos. 4 aud 
5 were tried on bine-grass sod aud were re¬ 
quired to turn a fnrrow eight inches deep. 
Measurements are given in inches : 
No. 1. 
No. 2. 
No. 3. 
No. 4. 
No. 5. 
From A to B .... 
“ A “ E. 
22 
22* 
25 
20 
17 
35 
36 
41* 
44 
42 
“ A " F. 
33 
30* 
33 
:«> 
31 
“ A " D. 
9 
IU 
10 
8* 
6 
10 
“ B " 0. 
5 
5* 
5* 
3 
•' C “ I). 
'• B " land- 
15 
15 
16 
10* 
9* 
side. 
Draft per square 
inch of furrow 
14 
14 
ID* 
14 
10 
section... 
4.ID 
4.31 
4.96 
4.86 
8.63 
In the plows noted above. No 1. showed the 
lightest draft on stubble ground. Of the two 
sod plows, No. 5 showed much the heavier 
drafts. The draft is given in pounds. It will 
be seen that the draft of No. 5 was very heavy 
—nearly double that of No. 4—hut its work 
was by far the best. Had the wiug of No. 4 
been extended to, say, 4S inches instead of 
44, so as to turn the sod more evenly, it would 
have done very much better work with but 
a slight increase in draft, and a plow having 
nearly or quite that form will be found to be 
the most satisfactory sod plow. 
Between Nos. 1 and 2 there is but little dif¬ 
ference. No. 2 is longer from A. to B. and 
from A. to E. and the draft Is a trifle greater. 
No. 3 is shorter iu proportion to its width, 
gives the furrow slice a more abrupt twist and 
has a heavier draft. The best form for an old- 
ground plow for general use is very nearly, if 
not quite, that of No. 1. If a wider or nar¬ 
rower share is used, of course, the other meas¬ 
urements most vary in proportion. The only 
object of the “ landside” is to hold the plow 
steady in the furrow ; but this cannot he ac¬ 
complished by the straight bar of iron which 
is often used for the pnrpose. Neither the 
bottom nor the outside of this bar should be 
straight. If the bottom is straight, the plow 
may run well In level aud uniform soil, but 
whenever the draft is increased by harder and 
mere compact soil, the plow will run too much 
on its poiut or “root into the ground.” A 
straight outer face to the landside makes uo 
difference in the quality of the work, blit it 
increases the draft. Both the outside aud bot¬ 
tom of the lauddidc should be slightly coucave 
—from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch. 
The Line of Draft 
is an important point in the construction of a 
plow, aud one to which far too little attention 
is given. The line of draft is a straight line 
passiug from the poiut where the traces are 
attached to the hames, to the plow at a point iu 
the center of (he furrow-Blice. Iu a plow cut¬ 
ting a furrow 6x13 inches, the line would strike 
the mold-board at a poiut six inches from the 
landside aud three inches above the bottom of 
the furrow. With the clevis attaching the 
doubletrees to the plow anywhere out of this 
straight line, the draft is increased aud the 
plow runs unsteadily. The position of the 
clevis will, of course, be fixed by the shape of 
the beam, and the shape of the beam is entire¬ 
ly Immaterial so Long as it places the clevis di¬ 
rectly iu the lino of draft. 
Kinds of Plow* for Different Soil. 
In stony aud suudy soils,)cast-irou plows will 
do exeelleut work: but for the black, waxy 
soils of the great wheat aud corn-growing re¬ 
gions of the West, a plow must not only be of 
fine-grained and very hard material, but it 
must receive the highest possible polish before 
it will “scour.” The best material for such 
plows is found iu the hardest of steel, steel so 
as it oau be done by the blacksmith, and the 
temper is preserved uninjured. Manufactur¬ 
ers of hardened steel plows usually make the 
share of either hardeued or soft steel, as may 
he preferred, so that the customers can have 
their choice. For 
The Beam 
botli wood and steel have their advocates. 
Wooden beams are frequently sprung by the 
plow striking a root or a stone, often without 
the plowman noticing the fact, aud the clevis 
is thus thrown out of the line of draft; hut as 
the plotv will still do fair work, the owner is 
tempted to continue using it. Steel beams arc 
never sprung out of shape, but are sometimes 
broken. They can be replaced, aud must be 
replaced before the plow can be used agaiu, 
and on this account mauy prefer the steel 
beams. The most important attachments to the 
plow are 
The Coulter 
and the sulky. Of the former there are three 
forms, oue being merely a flange rising from 
three to five inches from the point of the share, 
,aud which only divides the futfow-slice from 
the land and does nothing toward cutting man¬ 
ure or muck which may be on the surface. 
Another form is a straight bar ot hem passing 
from the point of the share to the beam and 
sharpened on the front edge. This coulter di¬ 
vides the furrow-slice from the laud complete¬ 
ly ami pushes away the manure or rubbish, 
but does not cut it, and is very liable to clog. 
The rolling coulter now becoming quite com¬ 
mon, is by far the best, as it not only divides 
the furrow-slice from the laud, but when it 
meets any obstruction,it presses it to the ground 
and divides it like a knife. By its nee corn- 
hills can be split and piles of manure *r straw 
cut so as to render clogging impossible. On 
stony ground such a coulter isiiabJlLto be dull¬ 
ed or broken, and for sucli soils the straight 
coulter is preferable, but ou soils free from 
stones, even if flUed with roots, the rolling 
coulter will be found better than any other. 
The SulKy Plow. 
In usiug the common plow, the weight of the 
plow and of the furrow-slice rests ou the bottom 
of the plow, which is dragged along with a 
considerable amount of friction. The design 
of the sulky plow' is to transfer the w’eight 
of the plow aud furrow-slice from the bottom 
of the plow to the wheels, thereby greatly les¬ 
sening the friction and holding the plow more 
steadily, and furnishing an opportunity for the 
driver to ride. Snob plows are usually in¬ 
tended for three horses, and turn an aighteen- 
lueh furrow, thus enabling one man and three 
horses to do three-fourths of the work which 
can ho done by two men and four horses with 
common plows, besides doing the work iu a 
better manner. Although the sulky plow is 
much heavier than the common plow, aud the 
weight of the driver is added, the draft per 
cubic inch of earth turned is less, on account 
of the greatly lessened friction. Iu twelve 
trials of the same plow, used separately and 
attached to a sulky, a difference of about five 
percent, has beeu found in favor of the sulky. 
Sulky plows require large and moderately 
level fields for their economical use, hut In 
such fields they will accomplish the work 
much more rapidly and better than it can be 
done with the common plow. For plowing 
among trees or stumps they are too large and 
awkward to handle well, aud are hot to be rec¬ 
ommended. Mauy of the so-called “sulky at¬ 
tachments” are merely devices by w hich wheels 
aud a seat are so arranged that the driver can 
ride aud guide the plow, but unless the weight 
of the plow and furrow is borne on the wheels 
the draft is greatly increased, aud the sulky is 
utterly useless except for cripples w ho eaunot 
walk. The essential points iu the sulky are : 
first, it must be so constructed that the entire 
weight is borne on the wheels : second, it must 
be easily adjustable, so that the plow will be 
perfectly level when run at any depth ; third, 
It should be possible to secure the plow at any 
required depth, so that it cannot run out when 
going through unusually hard spots of ground. 
Points to be Sought in a Plow. 
Iu the construction of a plow, of course the 
first point to be considered, is the quality of 
the work done. Good work is the sine qua non 
of a good plow. The uext point is the draft 
which is too often overlooked. In one series 
of tests with a large number of plows, mauy 
of them having but a slight difference in form, 
a difference of nearly ninety per cent, in draft 
was found between plows doing equally good 
work. With the best plow ten horses could do 
the work of nineteen with the poorer plow. 
Durability is another point and a plow costing 
from fifteen to twenty dollars, made of the best 
material, is often cheaper than the ten-doilar 
oue “ made to sell.” Ease of management is 
also to be considered, but this is dependent 
entirely upon the form, and no plow which 
does its work well and with little draft, will 
run unsteadily or be bard to hold. These 
Remarks 
are not sufficiently technical to be of use to the 
manufacturers of plows, aud they are designed 
only as a guide and stimulate to inquiry for 
those who buy and use them. If the success 
which farmers seek iu their crops fails to 
reward their labors, the fault may often lie 
where they have beeu accustomed to exercise 
little thought and judgment—in the manner iu 
which the plow has prepared the soil for re¬ 
ceiving the seed. The best plow is the cheap¬ 
est, and the man who aims at science and 
success in fanning, should not willingly be 
ignorant of the principles which enter into the 
construction of the implements upon which 
his success so largely depends. 
Agricultural College, Columbia, Mo. 
Jfttlir Crop. 
HISTOBY OF A POOB FABM.—No. 7. 
Heeding to Grass. 
The sw’amp which has been ditched and 
cleared of brush, is now dry aud perfectly free 
from surface water, the drains runniug freely. 
The tussocks are now being cut off with a broad, 
heavy hoe and piled up in heaps to dry, so tha 
they can be burned off by-and-by. It is intend¬ 
ed to cut up the surface of the swamp with a 
disc harrow, instead of plowing it, by which it 
will be prepared for the seed iu a much better 
manner than by turning furrows. This is a 
new method of reclaiming a piece of swamp 
land, and the work has been closely watched 
by my neighbors. It was ou a sunny day in 
March when some of my frequent visitors were 
examining the effect of the drains, and my 
plan was discussed very freely. My old neigh¬ 
bor was dubious about the economy of the pro¬ 
cess. 
“ What do you expect it to cost ?” he asked. 
“ I suppose when it is alt done that it will cost 
as much as the first year’s crop or perhaps just a 
trifle more ; aud if it docs uot'cost much more 
thau that, it will be a remarkably cheap job,” 
I replied. 
“ What crop do you intend to put into it ?” 
asked Mr. Martin. 
“ Fred aud I have been discussing that. I 
propose to seed it down to grass alone, and 
Fred thinks a crop of oats, to cat green for 
fodder, would be better, seeding down to grass 
with the oats.” 
“There would be two crops iu place of one,” 
said Fred. 
“ Oats will do very well iu that mucky soil,” 
remarked my old neighbor. 
“That is very true," I replied, “ but suppose 
the ground was sown with outs and then with 
six quarts of timothy aud one bushel of red-top 
per acre, cutting the oats green so as to give 
the grass a chance to make a good growth iu 
the fall, what would be the result ?” 
“There should be at least two tons of oat- 
fodder which would be equal to hay, and per¬ 
haps a late ratting of hay, if you had a good 
catch,” replied Mr. Martin : “ but that depends 
upon what grass-seed is sown. I would seed 
down with two bushels of orchard-grass and 
oue bushel of red-top per acre.” 
“Orchard-grass is the. best grass one can 
grow ; it comes in early and it lasts until late,” 
remarked the old gentleman: “I have had it 
growiug in my orchard for some years, and it 
is the first that is green in the spring and the 
quickest to start after having been cut, of 
any grass I have seen ; aud it does well in wet 
places, too. 
*• There is a variety of grasses which grow 
weU upon moist ground,” said Fred ; “ of these 
timothy Is first iu value, belug the richest of 
all the grasses in carbohydrates or heat-form- 
iug' aud respiration-supporting matters; but it 
has the disadvantage of being exhaustive ol' 
the soil. Orchard-grass comes next to timothy 
in nutritious value, while it has the great ad¬ 
vantage of beiug more leafy, of earlier and 
more rapid growth and furnisbiug, in eouse- 
