5i4 
THE RURAL NEW-YORKER. 
July 18 
In either of these systems of culture the grower 
must be prompt, energetic, skillful and persistent in 
all of the necessary operations. Pruning, spraying 
and thinning are perhaps even more necessary under 
the turf system, hut neither will give success without 
that persistent effort and hard work that is required 
in all kinds of horticultural or other business. Above 
all things the soil cover or mulch must be kept up by 
frequent cutting of the grass before it gets so large as 
to carry away so much moisture as to injure the trees. 
While on Land that can be readily cultivated and that 
will not wash badly the most necessary conditions for 
success in orcharding, i. e., the proper supply of mois¬ 
ture and plant food, may generally be most profitably 
obtained by constant cultivation with modern tools, 
,on thousands of acres of land that cannot be culti¬ 
vated orchards can be and are profitably grown under 
the system of turf culture. 
The late Thomas Meehan, the noted horticulturist 
of Germantown, Pa., often referred to the growth of 
the lawn when the clippings of the mower were al¬ 
lowed to fall on the surface and decay as “the perfec¬ 
tion of cultivation,” and this system of orcharding, 
when skillfully carried on, comes very near the per¬ 
fection of cultivation if all the grass and falling leaves 
of the trees are allowed to decay on the land. The 
successful grower under these conditions will be he 
w'ho can understand the needs of his trees, and ap¬ 
plies just the right amount and kind of plant food to 
produce the best growth of tree and the necessary 
soil cover. What our farmers and fruit growers who 
< 
are growing apples need more than to change their 
system of orcharding is more thorough and persistent 
work. Thousands upon thousands of fruit trees may 
be found growing on our farms that never receive any 
care whatever except to gather what fruit they may 
chance to produce. I think 1 shall be supported in the 
assertion that more than one-half of the apple trees 
in this State are worse than useless, and if all trees 
with badly decayed trunks and main branches were 
cut down at once, and all the sound trees bearing un¬ 
profitable varieties were either cut down or grafted 
with the best market varieties, and then a reasonable 
amount of labor be expended and plant food and 
moisture be produced in the soil, either by cultivation 
or mulching, we would produce more apples than we 
now' do and they would be of such a quality as to com¬ 
mand the markets of the world. s. t. urAVNARO. 
Massachusetts. _ 
THE BEST WOOD FOR GRAFTING. 
One hardly needs to make a finished study of na¬ 
ture nor possess an exceptionally keen sense of obser¬ 
vation to learn that the natural tendency and instinct 
of everything in the plant kingdom is to reproduce 
itself through its seed. We do not believe this state¬ 
ment can be logically or scientifically disputed. Ob¬ 
serve the apple tree on the roadside that you gathered 
fine large fruit from 10 or 12 years ago. It has been 
left entirely neglected; you scarcely recognize the 
fruit to-day, it is so small and inferior in every way 
that it seems to have lost all of its former valuable 
characteristics. The same condition prevails in the 
neglected orchards that one occasionally sees in driv¬ 
ing through the country. This deterioration of the 
fruit is the natural and expected result of the weak¬ 
ened low vitality of the trees caused by this uninter¬ 
rupted excessive seed production, plainly stating that 
the trees are quickly "seeding themselves to death.” 
This is also so, and perhaps more noticeable, in the 
strawberry and the bush and vine fruits. The plant¬ 
ings soon run out, the length of time depending on 
the species of fruit, and, of course, somewhat on cli¬ 
matic conditions, soil and cultural methods. No one 
with a practical experience and knowledge of horti¬ 
culture would think of propagating plants from an 
old strawberry, raspberry or currant plantation; he 
would not use such stock for setting at any price or 
under any circumstances. 
It is true and reasonable that trees when cultivated, 
fertilized, pruned, sprayed and cared for in every 
proper way by the keen watchful skilled grower will 
not deteriorate, nor the fruit diminish in size, lose its 
shape and form and be lacking in quality anything 
like the fruit from the trees heretofore mentioned that 
have been left to their own destruction. In fact, with 
annual judicious pruning, spraying, and the best 
feeding and tillage, we are producing fine, large, high- 
colored fruit of the best quality from comparatively 
old trees. Nevertheless, these trees are getting older, 
and they will not and cannot produce as strong and 
vigorous stock, either from bud or graft, as the young 
trees. For example, the new wood growth on an old 
tree—regardless of the fine fruit it bears—is always 
much smaller and inferior in every way than that 
from the younger trees, the exception being where 
the trees throw out suckers from the large branches, 
which is the result of severe pruning, by removing 
large limbs. Such wood is soft and inferior for graft¬ 
ing. Finally, I do not consider wood from an old 
tree, apple, pear, plum or their kindred, as desirable 
or valuable as w'ood from a young tree of vigorous 
growth, nor would 1 expect and look for the same 
good results from its use. My preference would be to 
propagate from trees six to 15 years of age, but trees 
from three to six years of age make excellent stock to 
graft or bud from, and I would unhesitatingly choose 
such in preference to old bearing trees, quite regard¬ 
less of their excellence of character and previous bear¬ 
ing qualifications. t. j. dwyer. 
Orange Co., N. Y. 
TALKS ABOUT FARM MACHINERY. 
THE FARM WAGON AND ITS I.OAD. 
Part I. 
Probably not a farmer in the land believes that in 
everyday from practice, small wagon wheels handle a 
load with the same draft as large wheels; that is, the 
small standard of 24-inch front wheels and 28-inch 
rear, and the large standard of 44-inch front and 55- 
inch rear. It remained as a conjecture until the Mis¬ 
souri Station, in 1898, began a series of experiments 
with the Giddings self-recording dynamometer. The 
following tables are from Bulletin 52, by Prof. T. I. 
Mairs. The work was done with standard, front 
wheels 44 inches, rear 55 inches; medium, front 
wheels, 36 inches, rear 40 inches; low, front wheelte 24 
inches, rear 28 inches, with a uniform net load of 
2,000 pounds. Upon an ordinary dry gravel road a draft 
required to draw 2,000 pounds on the low wheels 
wmuld draw 2,290 on medium and 2,332 on large 
ILLUSTRATING DRAFT OF A WAGON. Fig. 192. 
wheels. On wet gravel roads the same power to low 
wheels dre’.' 2,000 pounds, medium 2,460 pounds, large 
2,516 pounds. On macadam road, low wheels 2,000 
pounds, medium 2,160 pounds, large 2,174 pounds. On 
Timothy sod, dry and firm, low wheels 2,000 pounds, 
medium 2,314 pounds, large 2,424 pounds. On corn 
stubble land, low wheels 2,000 pounds, medium 2,476 
pounds, large 2,654 pounds. Freshly plowed land, low 
wheels 2,000 pounds, medium, 2,318 pounds, large 2,644 
pounds. 
In Fig. 192 let A represent a wheel, with the radius 
B, the radius of whose axle is C. The center of the 
wheel will be the fulcrum, and the power applied at 
the circumference of the wheel. Then B:C:: axle fric¬ 
tion: power. Let d and e represent two wheels bear¬ 
ing the same load and same width of tire, these 
wheels being at rest. If it then requires an arc whose 
chord is hk to support the weight on the high wheel it 
will sink to a depth of i f. On the low wheel the chord 
will be the 'same and it will therefore sink to a depth 
ot ig. As fifir is greater tran if so will the small 
wheel sink deeper than the large one. If therefore 
the power is applied at I, the leverage y g with A: as a 
fulcrum, will be greater than xg with the same ful¬ 
crum. From this reasoning and from a simple geo¬ 
metrical proposition the larger the axle the heavier 
the draft, and vice versa. 
There seems, however, in actual practice a medium 
beyond which for canseis purely mechanical the size 
of axle bearing must not be reduced; for instance, the 
box and thimble axle, as compared to the all iron or 
hollow axle. The principle involved says the small 
hollow axle will handle with less draft; yet in the 
very heavy hauling of the lumber and paper com¬ 
panies of northern New York, where three tons, over 
usually the worst of roads, is an average load, I have 
never seen the small axle in use. The men who do 
the work say the teams work much easier with the 
slightly larger thimble over wood axle. I am unable 
to find any accurate experimental data bearing on 
this point. It had been my private opinion that our 
small iron axle was,preferable to the larger thimble 
skein. We use both kinds, and the small bearing 
needs lubricating often. On account of less surface 
less grease is held, and they sooner become dry. This 
may in part account for the belief of the men above 
quoted; a fact also that these small iron axles we^r 
out much faster than the larger ones. 
Common practice puts the greater w'eight upon the 
front wheels. King gives results as follows, pounds 
per ton: 
Upon dry Dry 
pasture. meadow. 
I.oad 
equally 
on 
four 
wheels... 
...110.4 
174 
Load 
heaviest 
on 
one side. 
...120.0 
187.5 
Load 
heaviest 
on 
front 
wheels... 
...129.3 
229.9 
Load 
heaviest 
on 
hind 
wheels... 
...101.8 
190.9 
Ixioking at the problem from a mechanical stand¬ 
point we shall at once see that the hind wheels are 
larger, will not cut in so deeply, and will haul with 
ICS'S draft; also that they are hauled by direct draft 
from the king-bolt of the front axle. Upon reasonably 
smooth surfaces the more nearly we secure a direct 
line of draft the better. Upon plowed land there may 
be a gain from a lifting draft. We readily see that 
the line of draft r t, ■shown in the lower diagram of 
Fig. 192, reproduced from King’s Physics of Agricul¬ 
ture, represents the least waste of energy; r,t 
would move the load, r v doubtful, and r n would lift 
it from the ground. The draft of a locomotive is al¬ 
ways in direct line with the weight. n. E. cook. 
SHEET ZINC FOR ROOFING. 
What information can you slve regarding the practi¬ 
cability of sheet zinc for roofing? Does it need painting, 
and have you any record of its use? e. p. m. 
Nichols, Conn. 
1 know of several instances where sheet zinc has 
been used for roofing, and in each instance with most 
unsatisfactory results. Zinc is a peculiar metal, very 
hard, and therefore seems unable to withstand the 
expansion and contraction by the sudden changes of 
heat and cold. It is commonly said that it is a very 
cool metal, which simply means that it possesses the 
power of rapid radiation. The Baptist church in our 
neighboring town of Carthage, N. Y., recently put on 
zinc gutters, and was obliged to take the stuff off in 
less than six months. It was cracking, and where not 
firmly nailed was getting loose. Theoretically zinc 
by virtue of its non-corrosive nature, should be ex¬ 
ceedingly valuable, but the practice seems to prove 
otherwise. The roofing problem is a difficult one in 
many places Iron is comparatively cheap and may 
be used where the space below is free from moisture, 
or it should be painted with some of the specially- 
prepared iron paints before putting down upon the 
under side; then cover the roof boards, always of 
matched lumber to insure a smooth surface, with the 
oiled paper used for this purpose, and kept In stock 
at hardware stores. The job will, if kept painted on 
the outside, be a very durable roof. h. e. c. 
R. N.-Y.—Painting a metal roof is a job that is 
likely to be put off too long. It should be looked 
over every year and attended to as soon as scaly spots 
appear. Of course the best paint is cheapest in the 
end. 
FERTILIZER NEEDS OF CROPS. 
.\n observant farmer should first note whether the 
land contains a reasonable amount of humus. This 
implies power or lack of power to hold moisture and 
to set free plant food. Turnips can secure phosphoric 
acid when it is in an insoluble form far more readily 
than can the cereals. We sow turnips, rape and the 
like as a cover crop in order to liberate phosphoric 
acid for more highly developed plants which are to 
follow, such as the cereals. Often the color of the 
soil indicates something as to its requirements, but 
this method of determining what is lacking Is hot 
satisfactory. If a crop is growing on the land, it is 
not at all difficult to determine within certain limits, 
provided the land has been well prepared, what the 
soil lacks. Water may be the chief necessary Ingre¬ 
dient which is lacking. This being present in a rea¬ 
sonable quantity, and not in too great quantity, then 
if the plants are yellow it is certain that nitrogen is 
deficient. If they grow wide, large, dark, rank leaves 
we may be certain that an abundance, perhaps too 
much nitrogen is present. If the grains appear to he 
rather light and shrunken, that Is, not as plump and 
as high-colored as they should be, it is probable that 
phosphoric acid and potash are deficient, probably the 
former. [Prof.] i. p. Roberts. 
