192 
AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST. 
[April, 
For Winter Grain Fields—Important 
Work Now. 
All who have winter wheat or rye growing should 
give them instant attention the moment the frost 
begins to leave the ground, and that time is al¬ 
ready at hand in the middle regions, if not over in 
the more southern localities where winter wheat 
is grown. Let it be well understood that no degree 
of cold appears to injure wheat. In Northern Min¬ 
nesota, Dakota, Winnepeg, Manitoba, and Saskat¬ 
chewan, which are among the finest wheat regions 
of the world, a temperature of 30° to 40° below 
zero is not uncommon. As a rule, the ground freezes 
early in autumn and keeps frozen until spring. 
What kills, or materially injures all crops remain¬ 
ing in the ground over winter, is the alternate 
freezing and thawing in the spring contest between 
winter and summer. The amount of damage, the 
good or bad stand that goes over to the growing 
season of June and July, depends largely upon the 
numberof freezing nights followed by thawing days. 
To understand this, keep in mind that water, in 
passing from a temperature of 39° to 32° (to ice), 
expands about one-eighth of its own bulk. A wet 
soil does the same. The fine delicate roots and 
root hairs, of which there are tens of thousands 
on every wheat plant, and which are its feed¬ 
ers or sap suppliers, are of necessity stretched, 
torn, and broken by this expansion of the soil. 
Suppose one freezing and thawing thus des¬ 
troys only ten per cent, of the rootlets, there 
would still remain enough for most of the 
wants of the plant. But repeat the operation 
a dozen times, reducing the roots ten per cent, 
each time, and we should have not quite 30 
per cent, of the original roots left alive. In a 
favorable season, with a steady moisture in the soil, 
the plants may endure from five to six of these 
freezings, and yet have enough roots left, and after¬ 
wards produced, to supply sap for the maturing of 
afaircrop. But with dry weather in June and July 
the plants will not have roots enough to furnish the 
needed sap, which is the life-blood of the plant, the 
carrier of food from the leaves and roots to the in¬ 
terior of the plants. Dry earth does not expand in 
freezing, and the nearer dry a soil is, the less the 
expansion. 
The important lesson from the above now is, that 
every possible effort should be made to free the 
soil from standing water on, or in, the wheat and 
rye fields. A little work will clear out the lower 
ends of dead furrows and thus often draw off the 
excess of moisture from a large area. If there are 
wet spots not drained by dead furrows or other¬ 
wise, it is better to run a plow right through the 
growing crop now, and let off the excessive moisture 
in the soil. If such a furrow will do it there will be 
enough more wheat on the dried portion to make 
up the loss. Any farmer going over the field with 
spade or hoe, can usually find many places where a 
few minutes’ work will save many bushels of wheat. 
Coal as Farm Fuel. 
Most persons will be surprised when we state 
that all the great agricultural regions embraced in 
Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Dakota, part of Minne¬ 
sota, Wisconsin, and Illinois, already filled or fast 
filling up with a dense population of cultivators, 
would now be, and long continue very sparsely set¬ 
tled, but for the recent discovery of coal. The en¬ 
tire native growth of wood on a large part of the 
above area would not keep the present population 
alive five years—would not supply fuel for cooking 
and to prevent their freezing to death in winter! A 
few first settlers obtained fuel from the small tim¬ 
ber belts along streams, often hauling it many miles. 
But there are probably two hundred million acres 
in the above named region, the occupants of which 
must depend wholly upon hard coal for fires. Sixty- 
five years ago, when Illinois was organized as a 
State, the use of hard coal was unknown. Thirty- 
seven years ago, when Iowa became a State, the en¬ 
tire anthracite production of the whole country wfts 
hut little over half a million tons. But just when 
the rapid settlement of the treeless prairies started 
in full vigor, coal was found in largely increased 
quantities, not only at the East, but begun to be 
discovered right under the prairies, where it was 
most needed; and now we find that during 1881, the 
latest official figures at hand, the out-put of coal 
was, in round numbers : 
Tons. 
Illinois. 6.000.000 
Iowa. 1,750,000 
Missouri. 1,750,00 > 
Indiana . 1,500,000 
Tons. 
Colorado. 700,000 
Kansas . 500,000 
Wyoming. 225,000 
Total.12,425,000 
That is, there is more coal now mined in this 
prairie territory than the entire production of an¬ 
thracite in the United States only seventeen years 
ago ! New discoveries of coal are constantly being 
made all over the region between the Mississippi 
and the Pacific Coast, and the railways bring it 
at low rates within easy reach of almost every 
farm, and thus has a kind Providence stored abun¬ 
dant fuel under these great fertile plains which stand 
all ready for instant tillage, without the years of 
toilsome preparation required of pioneers in forest 
covered regions. 
A Revolving Bird House. 
Herewith is an engraving of a bird house which I 
had for several years. The blue birds took a special 
liking to it, raising several broods each year in it. 
The advantage is that the door is always turned 
from the storm. I made the arrow of inch hard¬ 
wood board, with a plate of iron for the “ feather- 
end.” A quarter-inch iron pin in the top of the 
pole runs through the arrow, the whole answering 
for a vane. J. Young. 
How to Raise Winter Squashes, 
BT S. E. FOX, ESSEX CO., N. J. 
Success in growing winter squashes depends on 
three things: a soil properly fertilized with nitrogen¬ 
ous manure ; the seed-bed pulverized to a generous 
depth, and the growing vines protected from the 
ravages of insects. Unless oue proposes to grow 
squashes extensively for the market, it will be far 
more satisfactory to cultivate a few hills thoroughly, 
so that the vines will be loaded with large squashes, 
than to plant a large area half-manured, which will 
yield a crop of small and inferior squashes. If one 
has manure sufficient for only a few hills, it will 
be more profitable to put a generous amount into 
each hill than to spread it broadcast over the land. 
Yet, the entire soil ought to be enriched, for the 
reason that the vines of winter squashes will take 
root, wherever the joints touch the ground, thus oc¬ 
cupying the entire area. 
My own practice is to prepare the hills, at any 
convenient time during the winter or early part of 
autumn. Half a dozen hills, with proper manage¬ 
ment, will produce all the winter squashes that a 
family of ordinary size may need. At the place for 
each hill, drive a stake into the ground, taking care 
that the stakes stand in a line, so that the stakes 
mark the middle of each hill; with these as a 
centre, holes are made, four feet in diameter and 
twenty inches deep, and about a bushel of fresh 
night-soil is thoroughly mingled with the earth of 
each as it is returned to the hole. In filliug in, 
keep the best soil, the top soil, near the surface, 
and replace the stakes in line. By preparing the 
hills a few months before the seed is planted, a 
small quantity of rich fertilizing material will be 
changed into plant food ; if seeds are planted 
above such a strong fertilizer while it is undecom¬ 
posed, it would destroy the young and tender 
roots, just as superphosphate will burn up growing 
plants when too large a quantity is applied to 
the land. By pulverizing the seed-bed to a gener¬ 
ous depth, the roots will readily strike deep into 
the soil, and spread out over a large area, and in 
hot and dry weather, the growing vines will suffer 
but little injury from drouth. Just before the seed 
is planted, the ground should be spaded over 
again, so as to increase its porosity and its capaci¬ 
ty to retain moisture. 
Plant more Chestnut Trees. 
Owing to inexplicable causes, very little has yet 
been done to replace the fast disappearing native 
growth of the valuable chestnut. Its wood is one of 
the best for fence posts and rails on account of its 
great durability. It is also highly esteemed for 
wainscotings and other casings, and is often used 
for veneering. Its grain shows well when simply 
varnished instead of painted. Though not consid¬ 
ered very valuable as fuel, it makes a brisk fire, and 
in heating power, dry chestnut wood falls only 15 
per cent, or one-seventh, below hard maple, cord 
for cord, and is nearly equal to the soft maples. 
For its fruit alone the chestnut is largely grown 
in many parts of Europe, and in this country the 
nuts almost always meet a ready sale at remunera¬ 
tive prices. In some northern provinces of Italy 
chestnuts are a chief article of diet, eaten not only 
boiled and roasted, but ground into meal and made 
into bread, puddings and cakes. The report just 
issued by the Italian Inspector-General of Forests, 
states the chestnut crop at six hundred and forty- 
six million pounds, grown on about half a million 
acres of chestnut forests, of which nearly eight 
million pounds were exported, bringing a return of 
nearly half a million dollars. In the Province of 
Lucca 181 per cent, of the entire land is devoted 
to growing the chestnut mainly for its fruit. 
Single specimens, about dwellings and upon the 
road sides and in fields, make beautiful shade trees; 
they are little subject to disease or insects; they 
grow quickly, and live to a great age. Specimens in 
England and in Sicily are estimated at all the way 
from 800 to 4,000years old. They grow best on sandy 
soil, but do well on any soil not wet and swampy. 
The trees may be easily raised from the seed, 
if the nuts are not allowed to become dry before 
planting. Most nurseries supply young trees at 
moderate prices. There are millions of acres, espe¬ 
cially on side hills and rocky land, fit for little else, 
which could be very profitably turned into chest¬ 
nut orchards, and in a few years also supply a large 
amount of good timber. Let the reader look about 
and see if it is not worth while to start a lot of 
chestnut trees during this spring. 
Kew Zealand Flax. —The fibre of New 
Zealand flax (Phormiurn Tenax) is growing in favor 
with Australian manufacturers. This flax has been 
imported into Great Britain, where it was profitably 
used, at first. The importation then fell off. Near 
Melbourne, Victoria, the New Zealand flax has been 
introduced into a long-established rope and mat 
factory. New Zealand flax is found to be a valua¬ 
ble substitute for Italian flax In making twine, and 
engine packing. The fibre is fine and strong, and 
is used by the native New Zealanders for dresses, 
mats, cord, etc. As an illustration of the indus¬ 
trial growth of these far distant British colonies, it 
may he stated that the factory above referred to 
gives employment to more than 400 hands. Phor- 
mium Tenax is known in this country only as an 
ornamental plant, cultivated for its rich and varie¬ 
gated leaves. 
