122 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
and be lost. Calves frequently chew or suck any thing that is with¬ 
in their reach, not for food, but to help them swallow saliva, and on 
that account something like a teat should be placed near them, that 
by sucking it they may promote the secretion of saliva, and convey 
it to their stomach. 
“But though sucking the dam may be favorable to the calf, yet it 
seriously injures the cow. The calf cannot, when young, consume 
all the milk of a good cow, and she becomes so fond of her calf that 
she will not yield her milk to the dairy-maid ; and unless the cow's 
udder is completely emptied of milk every time she is milked, the 
lactic secretion is gradually diminished, and the cow will ultimately 
run dry on that account; but when the milk is drawn from the cows 
and given by hand to the calves, every thing can be regularly cor¬ 
rected to the advantage of the cow, the calf, and the owner of both. 
And when calves are reared for stock, various Substitutes for milk 
can be gradually introduced, and the milk slowly withdrawn, without 
injuring the stomach of the calf by a too sudden change of food. 
And when calves are to be fed, the milk of two cows can be given 
them by hand-feeding, while cows will suckle none but their own 
calves. 
“ The whole secret of fattening calves for veal is to give them, af¬ 
ter they are three or four weeks old, an abundance of milk, keep 
plenty of dry litter in their stalls, let them have the benefit of good 
air, moderate warmth, and be nearly in the dark, as they hurt them¬ 
selves with sportiveness when exposed to too much light. In Hol¬ 
land, the best feeders keep their calves in pens or coops, in which 
they can stand or lie at pleasure, but cannot turn themselves round. 
I am not sure that such rigid confinement is beneficial. It is ne¬ 
cessary, however, to keep fat calves in places where they have but 
little light. They require to be fed twice every twenty-four hours. 
“ If a calf becomes coslice, a small portion of bacon or mutton 
broth will give them ease; and if they begin to purge, a small quan¬ 
tity of rennet, used in coagulating milk, will cure that disease. 
The Scotch calves are never bled, nor infusions of linseed, oil-cake, 
or any other food given them, but pure milk from the cow.” 
SCOTCH CATTLE FAIRS. 
These have been established in many parts of Scotland, and are 
often held two, three and four times a year, at stated periods. At 
these fairs, immense numbers of cattle, sheep and horses are bought 
and sold, and indeed they constitute, almost exclusively, the places 
of sale and barter for live stock. The advantages of these fairs are 
many and important. They are the place of resort of all who wish 
to buy and to sell; and they afford to the farmers the best opportu¬ 
nity of becoming acquainted with the improvements in live stock, of 
appreciating the advantages of the superior kinds, and of acquiring 
a knowledge in the arts of breeding and fattening. We quote from 
an account of these fairs, the number of cattle and sheep which are 
brought to some of them, in order to show to the readers of the Cul¬ 
tivator the immense amount of business transacted at them; for it 
must be understood, that actual sales take place of most of the cat¬ 
tle mentioned. 
Alnwick fair is held twice a year, in May and July. At the first, 
3,000 cattle are generally brought, and at the latter 700 or 800, 
mostly short horns. One-half of these are fat animals, the remain¬ 
der of various descriptions. The fat animals are bought by butch¬ 
ers for the large towns, and the others by feeders, drovers and dai¬ 
rymen. 
At Whitsunbank fair, from 1,000 to 1,200 cattle are sold, mostly 
short horns; and from 12,000 to 20,000 sheep, principally Leices- 
ters. Fat wethers sometimes reach 45s. a piece, equal to $10. 
At St. Ninian’s fair, from 700 to 800 cattle, principally short¬ 
horns, are sold, and from 12,000 to 20,000 sheep. The best Leices¬ 
ter rams sell as high as .£10 to £15 each, and ewes from 30s. to 
55s. The reader will bear in mind that a pound sterling is equal to 
$4.44. 
At Woln fair, the sales are equal to the preceding. 
At Dunse fairs, nearly 4,000 cattle are sold annually, and 7 to 
8,000 sheep, &c. 
There are sixteen other places enumerated in the Quarterly Jour¬ 
nal, at which similar fairs are held in Scotland, and at which the sales 
are probably equal to those we have quoted. What we have detail¬ 
ed will serve to convey an idea of the immense business transacted, 
and of the great benefits resulting from these fairs. We had hop¬ 
ed, and still hope, to see regular cattle fairs established in some of 
our towns, as affording the most efficient means of improving our 
cattle husbandry. The exertions of a few spirited individuals, sus¬ 
tained by perseverance, cannot fail in establishing and giving confi¬ 
dence in such fairs among us. 
ECONOMY OF FUEL. 
We have examined, with interest, a small work, detailing “ Ex¬ 
periments to determine the comparative quantity of heat evolved in the 
combustion of the principal varieties of wood and coal, used in the 
United States, forfuel; and also to determine the comparative quantity oj 
heat lost by the ordinary apparatus made use of for their combustion — 
By Marcus Bull. 
The experiments seem to have been made with great care and 
accuracy, and the results afford matter of interest to every house¬ 
holder. 
Mr. Bull has computed the cost of fuel consumed in Philadelphia, 
in a given year, to be $80,043, which being divided among the popu¬ 
lation, gives $7.04 as the average cost of fuel to each inhabitant, 
supposing the consumption to be equal. Adopting this estimate as 
a fair average for the population within ten miles of tide water, in 
•he Atlantic states, from Maine to Georgia, it gives an aggregate 
of twenty-one millions of dollars as the annual cost of fuel for this 
portion of population, which is assumed to amount to three millions 
of souls. Estimating the cost of fuel to the remaining eight millions 
and a half of our population at half the above price, or $3.50 to 
each individual, he gives us an aggregate of about fifty-one millions 
of dollars as the total annual expense of fuel, for every purpose in 
the United States. 
The economy of fuel is to be studied—1, in the kind to be select¬ 
ed for use ; 2, in its quality and preparation for use; and 3, in the 
choice of the apparatus in which it is to be used. 
In regard to wood .—The quantity of heat evolved by a cubic foot 
of the several kinds, when in a perfectly dry state, is very nearly in 
the ratio of their specific gravity, or relative weight; as for exam¬ 
ple, the specific gravity of shell-bark hickory being 1.000, a cord 
weighs 4,469 lbs.; by the same scale, the specific gravity of white 
pine is .476, and the cord weighs only 1,868 lbs. The quantity of 
heat evolved by a pound of white pine is as great as that evolved by 
a pound of hickory. The difference in value arises from the great 
disparity in weight—the hickory weighing as 22, and the pine as 
9—and their relative value being hickory 100, white pine 42—or the 
first being considerably more than twice as valuable as the latter. 
The table which we shall append will exhibit the relative value of 
the different kinds of fuel in common use. 
Charcoal forms a considerable item of fuel; and the facts which 
Mr. Bull has given us upon this subject will be found to be new and 
interesting. The value of charcoal, like that of wood, is principal¬ 
ly to be determined by its weight—a pound from one kind of wood 
affording about as much heat as a pound from another kind. The 
quantity, or rather weight, of charcoal, afforded by the different 
kinds of wood, is nearly in proportion to the relative weight of the 
wood. Thus hickory produces 26.22, the specific gravity of the dry 
1 coal being .625; while the white pine produces 24.35, and the spe¬ 
cific gravity of the dry coal being only .298. Thus, whether burnt 
in the form of wood or of charcoal, a cord of hickory affords more 
than twice the heat that is found in a cord of white pine. The va¬ 
lue of charcoal, however, depends much upon the manner in which 
it is prepared. The more completely the atmospheric air is exclud¬ 
ed from the wood, while under the process of being charred, and the 
more heat that is given to it, the heavier, the harder, and the belter 
will be the product. The best charcoal will be found of a slate co¬ 
lour on its surface, dense, sonorous and brittle; while inferior quali¬ 
ties approach to a jet black, and are soft and powdry, upon the ex¬ 
terior. To obtain the best quality, Mr. Bull recommends that the 
wood be piled in a single tier, that charcoal dust be interposed be¬ 
tween the wood, that the pile be covered with clay, and then a lay¬ 
er of sand, to close the cracks which the fire may cause in the clay, 
and that the fire be communicated at the exterior base, and in the 
centre and from the top. An intelligent collier, who partially adopt¬ 
ed Mr. Bull’s recommendation, gained by it 10 per cent in quantity 
by measure; and Mr. B. found the coal nearly 20 per cent heavier 
than usual. If these facts are correct, and we have no reason to 
doubt them, it would be an excellent police regulation in our towns, 
to have charcoal sold by the weight, instead of by measure, and 
would ultimately be beneficial to the seller as well as to the buyer. 
The loss in weight which wood undergoes in drying, and the mois¬ 
ture which it absorbs, by exposure, after it has become dry, are mat- 
