THE CULTIVATOR. 
153 
further, to reduce the substances to their greatest degree of mecha¬ 
nical or chemical division. 
Sometimes, accordingly, we have the means of improving the 
constitution of soils, by mixing sand with clay, or clay with sand.— 
But, in practice, the direct mixing of these two substances, for the 
purpose of producing a soil of better texture, is rare ; First, because 
the expense of this species of improvement is considerable; and. 
Second, because in the state in which sand and clay are usually 
available for this purpose, it seldom happens that the aluminous mat¬ 
ter of the one, or the silicious matter of the other, is in that state 
of minute division which is favorable to fertility. 
It is otherwise with earth lime. This can, in all cases, be reduc¬ 
ed by heat to that state of minute division which is favorable to the 
productiveness of soils; and hence can always be applied with be¬ 
nefit to those soils in which it is wanting. 
Lime is sometimes mixed, in its natural state, with aluminous and 
silicious matter. It then forms a marl, a substance which is fre¬ 
quently applied to soils as a means of improving them; it is chiefly 
to the lighter soils that lime is applied; for then, is not only lime 
applied, but alumina, to improve the texture of the soil. It is by 
means of this mixture that some of the greatest improvements 
on silicious sands that have taken place in Europe, have been ef¬ 
fected. 
There are cases in which even calcareous matter is in excess in 
soils. This occurs especially in districts where the chalk formation 
exists. When the earthy stratum resting upon chalk is very thin, 
the chalky matter becomes mixed with it, and being then in excess, 
forms a barren soil. 
An obvious means of amending the composition of a soil of this 
kind, is by adding any of the other earths, whether silicious or alu¬ 
minous. We need not here scruple to apply them because the clay 
is coarse or the sand silicious. We may add them in almost any 
form in which they can be conveniently procured; for the effect will 
be to improve the composition of the soil. 
There is another case in which, in like manner, silicious and alu¬ 
minous matter may be applied directly in almost any state in which 
it may be found. This is in the case of peat. Here the vegetable 
matter is in excess, and the addition accordingly of any other earths 
is an amendment of the composition of the soil. 
We see then, that the composition of soils may be improved by 
the addition of animal and vegetable matter, and also in many cases, 
by the addition of the earths in which they may be deficient, and in 
an especial degree, of lime, which we can always apply in the form 
of minute division best suited to improve the composition of the 
soil. This is the first of the means referred to of adding to the pro¬ 
ductive power of soils, and will be considered in detail under the 
head Manures, and other divisions of the management of the farm. 
The second mean referred to of increasing the productive power 
of a soil, is altering its texture, depth and properlies, by tillage 
and other means. 
The mere effect of that comminution of the parts of soil which it 
undergoes in the common operations of tillage, is seen to have a be¬ 
neficial influence on the productive powers of the soil. Whether 
the soil imbibes from the atmosphere any thing but aqueous vapor 
or not, it is known that the exposure of the matter of the soil to the 
atmosphere, and the comminuting of its parts by tillage, add per¬ 
manently to its fertility. Thus we learn from experience the good 
effects of tilling lands well; soils once tilled are rendered for the 
most part more productive by the process. Peaty turf, if suffered 
to remain in its original state, may continue to produce nothing but 
heath and the most useless plants ; but, if merely ploughed, and ex¬ 
posed to the influence of the atmosphere, it will at once tend to pro¬ 
duce grasses of a better kind, and of greater variety; and again, if 
a subsoil of coarse clay be exposed to the atmosphere, for the first 
time, it is generally at the first very unproductive, and it is not until 
after long exposure to the air that it becomes productive. This is 
most remarkable in the case of clay marl, a substance in itself, con¬ 
taining the materials of a fertile soil, but which is often barren, until; 
after pulverization and the influence of the atmosphere. 
It is, indeed, conformable to analogy, as well as to experience, 
that soils should be improved by pulverization and exposure to the 
atmosphere. In our examination of the constituent parts of soils, 
we have seen that their fertility is in a great degree indicated by 
the proportion of minutely divided earthy matter which they con¬ 
tain. 
The effect of tillage, therefore, may be reasonably supposed to 
Vol. I. U 
promote this division, both by the mechanical action of our instru¬ 
ments, and by exposing the particles of the earth to the action of 
the air. 
Another object sometimes produced by tillage, and subservient 
to the amendment of the soil, is the deepening of the upper stra¬ 
tum. 
The subsoil, it has been seen, is distinguished from the soil so 
called, by its containing less vegetable and animal matter, and so 
being less suited to the nourishment of plants; and in many cases 
it is even found to be injurious to vegetation. It is generally im¬ 
portant, however, that there be a good depth of soil, and thus it is 
often expedient, as a means of effecting a permanent improvement 
of the surface, to plough up and mix with it a portion of subsoil, 
even though that subsoil should in itself be infertile. 
These, then, are the principal mechanical means by which we can 
improve the soil, and they will be considered in detail, under the va¬ 
rious heads which relate to the operations of tillage. 
Another mean, indeed, of changing the composition of soils, is in¬ 
cineration, commonly called paring and burning . This process will 
be described as connected with the operations of tillage, and may 
be considered as one of the mechanical means possessed by us of 
adding to the productiveness of the soil. 
The third mean referred to, of adding to the productive power of 
soils, is changing their relation with respect to moisture. 
In warmer countries the soil is comparatively little injured by an 
excess of water, and more frequently suffers from the insufficiency 
of it. In climates like that of Britain, however, the operation of 
conveying away the water which is in excess is an essential one, and if 
neglected, the devised scheme of improvement may fail. The sur¬ 
plus water is either stagnant upon the surface, or penetrates below 
the surface. The freeing of cultivated land of water upon the 
surface, gives rise for the formation of land into ridges, by which 
the water escapes without stagnating upon the ground, or sinking 
into the subsoil below. This is an object necessarily connected with 
tillage, and will be described when the manner of cultivating land is 
treated of. 
The freeing of the soil again from that superfluous water which 
is contained below the surface, forms a peculiar branch of agri¬ 
cultural improvement, and will be described under the head of Drain¬ 
ing- 
As draining is more required in colder countries, so irrigation, or 
the watering of land, is less required than in those countries 
where the heat and evaporation are greater. Irrigation, however, 
is a curious and interesting branch of rural economy, derived by us 
from very ancient times. In this country it is chiefly employed 
in watering the lands in grass during the months of winter and 
spring. 
The last of the means referred to of adding to the productive 
power of soils, is by changing the relation with respect to tempera¬ 
ture. 
This mean of adding to the productive power of soils, is less 
within our control than any of the others. It is only by slow de¬ 
grees that we can improve the climate of a country. It is chiefly 
by draining, and the raising of hedges and wood ; all of these, ac¬ 
cordingly, form important objects of rural economy, and will be par¬ 
tially treated of in this work. 
The means, then, of adding to the productive powers of the soil, 
—namely, supplying the organic and earthy substances which may 
be required ; altering its texture, depth and properties, by mechani¬ 
cal means ; and changing its relation with respect to moisture,—will 
all be treated of under the different divisions of our subject; and 
we shall begin with that which is most closely connected with the 
nature and property of soils, the nature and property of those sub¬ 
stances which we apply to the soil under the name of manures. 
Slieep Husbandry* 
HINTS ON SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 
[Selectedfor the Cultivator .] 
Shelter. —It is obvious that housing sheep at night, and providing 
them, during the day, a shelter from the rain and sun, must preserve 
and improve the wool; and also essentially conduce to the health, 
comfort and preservation of the animal .-—Bakeioell. 
I would have sheep winter fed, to the degree of commencing the 
grass season in good store order, and without having sustained any 
check, in carcass or wool; and winter sheltered in yards or sheds, 
