294 LOGGING 
timber is cut into saw logs and piled on skidways along the right- 
of-way outside of the grade line. 
On main lines and spurs all stumps should be removed from 
the roadbed unless they are on the site of a proposed fill and will 
be covered with at least 1 foot of earth; or so located that they 
will not furnish a bearing for any part of the track; or the 
character of the ground is such that the removal of the stump 
during wet weather will cause a soft spot which cannot be kept 
up during the rainy period. 
Where the stumps are to be covered with earth they are cut 
off near the ground. Those on the right-of-way outside of the 
roadbed may be cut at any convenient height that will not in- 
terfere with the passage of locomotives, log cars, skidders or other 
equipment. Stumps may be removed by blasting with powder 
or dynamite, by grubbing or by burning. Blasting often is the 
cheapest method, but it disturbs the earth for some distance 
around the stump. The portions of the roadbed from which 
stumps have been removed by blasting often remain soft for 
months afterward and during wet weather may be difficut to 
keep in proper condition. As a rule, southern pine stumps from 
24 to 30 inches in diameter will require one day's labor for grubbing. 
Small- and medium-sized trees can best be removed by cutting all 
roots from 3 to 4 feet from the base of the tree and allowing the 
weight of the crown and bole to aid in pulling out the stump. 
The construction of the roadbed follows the felling of the 
timber and the removal of stumps. This covers the move- 
ment of earth and rock for cuts and fills, the construction of 
trestles, culverts, cribbing and other timber structures. 
FILLS AND CUTS 
Fills on a logging road should be 12 or 14 feet wide on top for 
a standard-gauge road and 10 or 12 feet wide for a narrow-gauge. 
The standard slope for an earthwork fill is I2 : 1.^ When the 
fill is made from solid rock, a 1 : 1 slope may be ample. 
1 The angle of repose or slope that a face of earth makes with the horizon- 
tal when not subjected to the elements is as follows: 
Compact earth 50 degrees or | to 1 
Clay, well drained 45 degrees or 1 to 1 
Gravel 40 degrees or If to 1 
Dry sand 3S degrees or 1 j to 1 
Wet sand 22 degrees or 2\ to 1 
Vegetable earth (loam) 28 degrees or If to 1 
Wet clay 16 degrees or 3 to 1 
