296 LOGGING 
fill must be taken from a "borrow" pit. This type of roadbed 
will last for at least one year. 
The movement of earth and rock in the construction of cuts 
and fills is most frequently done by contract. The unit on which 
pajanent is based is the cubic yard, the material being measured 
"in place," that is, in the natural bank before it has been dis- 
turbed. It is customary to classify the material to be moved 
and to regulate the prices accordingly. The classification and 
quantity of material moved are determined bj^ the supervising 
engineer. 
The following standard classification is in extensive use : 
(1) Earth. — Loam, sand, gravel or clay. Material that can 
be handled with a pick and shovel, or that can be plowed readil3\ 
(2) Hardpan. — Very dense clays and gravels, cemented with 
iron oxide. Soft shales that are easily worked may also be 
included. 
(3) Loose Rock. — Shales and other rock that can be quarried 
without blasting, although blasting may be resorted to occa- 
sionally. 
(4) Solid Rock. — Material requiring blasting for removal. 
The contract price per cubic yard for the removal of earth 
or rock usually includes excavating, hauling, and placing the 
material in a fill or a waste pit. It is not customary to pay for 
making a cut and also to pay for a fill made from the same ma- 
terial; in other words, payment for a given cubic yard is made 
but once. Grading contracts may have an "overhaul" clause 
which provides that for all earth hauled more than a specified 
distance ("free haul"), the contractor shall be paid a stated 
sum per cubic yard for each 100 feet of overhaul. On logging 
operations the length of free haul ranges from 100 to 500 
feet. 
The price paid for moving material varies greatly in different 
regions and is influenced by the length of haul, the kind of ma- 
terial moved, the character of classification, the degree of ac- 
curacy used in actual classification and the season of the year; 
the cost of winter work being about 25 per cent higher than that 
of work done during the summer. 
The average work on logging roads except on the Pacific Coast 
usually presents no special problems and can be performed with 
simple equipment which does not require a hea\'y financial 
