354 LOGGING 
binds are used where it is not feasible to return stakes and bind- 
ing material to the forest for further use. 
(4) Chains. — Logs may also be made secure with binder chains. 
After the main body of the load has been placed on the car, 
either a chain is passed around each end of the load, or one chain 
may be passed around the center. In the latter case corner bind 
chains are sometimes used if the car is not provided with stakes. 
Each set consists of two chains, one of which is fastened near the 
center, and the other to the outer end of the bunk. The first 
chain is about 2 feet long and the free end terminates in a ring, 
3 or 4 inches in diameter. The second chain is several feet long 
and its free end terminates in a grab hook. When the first tier 
of logs is loaded on the car, the corner binds are adjusted on 
the two outside logs. This is accomplished by placing the long 
chain over the log, passing the grab hook and chain through the 
ring in the short chain, drawing the long chain taut and locking 
it at the ring with the grab hook. The top load is then placed 
and if necessary a center bind placed around the entire load, and 
one or more logs placed on top of the chain to tighten it. 
Flat cars are from 24 to 41 feet long. Those 36 feet and 
over in length will carry a double load if the logs do not exceed 
18 feet in length. The average car load, for medium-sized 
logs, is from 4000 to 6000 board feet, with a maximum of about 
10,000 feet. 
Skeleton Cars. — This type of car has two pairs of 4- 
wheeled trucks joined together by a hea\'y wood bolster, A 
bunk from 8^ to 10 feet long is placed directly over each pair 
of trucks. Bunks are approximately 11 feet apart on a standard 
length car, but cars are also built for long logs with bunk centers 
up to 33 feet apart. 
Skeleton car bunks are equipped with a variety of stakes and 
"chocks" for preventing the bottom tier of logs from rolling off. 
One end of each bunk is often provided with bunk spikes, 
bolted to or driven into the wood while the other end is equipped 
with a chock or dog, which projects above the bunk when in use, 
but which may be dropped below the bunk level by means of a 
rod operated from the opposite side when the car is ready to 
unload. A single " top bind " chain also may be placed around 
the center of the load. 
Cars are frequently equipped with patent drop stakes, which 
