THE LIVER 229 
their lining cells. It seems necessary to stipulate these 
things because in the chronic forms, usually called cir- 
rhosis, it is necessary to have all of them, plus efforts at 
regeneration, in order to determine it as a chronic pro- 
gressive process. Acute hepatitis is a rare condition in 
mammals except when it is combined vdth septicemia or 
severe enteritis. In birds on the other hand the liver is, 
aside from the intestinal wall, perhaps the most frequent 
seat of pathology in the abdomen. This is because of its 
almost constant involvement in infective enteritis, and in 
such conditions as fowl cholera, fowl typhoid, coccidiosis 
and cecal amoebiasis, all of which we have sporadically. 
When one searches for special distribution among the 
orders, only one of them stands out as having a high per- 
centage, the Gain, an order which seems to have a very 
vulnerable liver. 
The macroscopic anatomy of hepatitis in birds is 
peculiar in sho\\dng a definite swelling with spots of gray 
or yellow color, sometimes coalescing to form irregular 
areas. These are much more definite than in the mam- 
malian organ where swelling and hemorrhage are the 
commoner findings. These pale spots are of two origins. 
They may be focal necroses of the hepatic cells, with or 
without circumferential congestion or hemorrhage to 
make them stand out. In amoebic, coccidial and typhoid 
livers such is the type of change. In septicemia and 
cholera, the mottlings are made up of increased inter- 
stitial mononuclear areas, with blood cells and shadow 
cells numerously present. I have seen what was in all 
probability a stage of repair after both these kinds of 
change. In the former, regeneration seemed to take place 
from adjoining liver cells, there being in the section no 
evidence of increased bile ducts to make new hepatic cells. 
It seemed also that phagocytes were derived from blood 
cells and not from Kupffer's cells. In the infiltrative 
lesion disappearance of the liver cells from the groups 
leaving compressed and deeply granular remnants was all 
