GOO 
spondingly slower and hence when the soil is stirred 
there is less moisture to be brought mechanically to 
the surface and for this reason a smaller loss from 
the field. 
CULTIVATION MAY BE TOO FREQUENT. 
—So long as the soil mulch is well loosened and 
thoroughly separated from the firm ground beneath, 
and especially after the mulch has become quite dry, 
little can be gained by stirring the soil. Indeed it 
must be ever kept in mind that it costs to cultivate 
and when this is done without need the labor is a 
loss. Further than this, late in the season when the 
surface of the ground has become relatively dry 
positive harm may be done by unnecessary cultiva¬ 
tion because, at this season, many plants put up, 
very close to the surface, great numbers of fine 
roots in order to avail themselves of plant food 
which is concentrated by the capillary rise of mois¬ 
ture near the surface, and to utilize the moisture 
which may condense upon the soil grains in the form 
of dew within the surface layer of soil, on the coolest 
nights. To destroy such roots may cause a greater 
loss by root pruning, cutting the plant off from 
available plant food which has been concentrated 
near the surface and from moisture that comes in 
the form of small showers, than can be gained by 
saving moisture through a little more perfect mulch. 
Frequent cultivation both develops available plant 
food and retains it in the soil where it can best be 
used. Frequent cultivation is most important early 
in the season because the soil is then wettest and 
evaporation of moisture is most rapid then; because 
mulches then lose their effectiveness rapidly; because 
stirring the moist soil hastens fermentation and this 
develops available plant food; and because this gives 
more complete destruction of weeds. .But the main¬ 
tenance of a good earth mulch is nearly if not quite 
as important in preventing the rise of the most im¬ 
mediately available plant food to the surface above 
the reach of the roots as it is in preventing the rise 
and loss of the moisture which brings up the plant 
food with it. We must remember that the most im¬ 
portant function of water in plant feeding is to carry 
essentials to and from place to place in the plant 
and so it is important to retain the water with its 
plant food down where the roots of the crop are 
and this is one of the most important things a mulch 
does. Saving moisture is less than half the good fre¬ 
quent cultivation does. Work the soil deepest early 
and shallower later because the plant food concen¬ 
trates under the mulch and the roots know 1 it and 
come to it. f. h. king. 
NITRE SPOTS IN COLORADO SOIL 
Last Winter we tried to give some facts about 
nitrogen and its use as plant food. The foundation 
fact is that pure nitrogen is a gas. The original 
source of it is the air. In the soil it is usually in an 
organic form—that is, in some form of vegetable or 
animal matter which represents growth. We showed 
that small quantities of nitrogen or ammonia are 
washed out of the air by rain and snow, and 
brought to the soil in this way. With every strong 
electrical discharge small quantities of nitrogen 
are combined into oxides from which nitric acid 
is formed. As we pointed out, this is made use of to 
take nitrogen from the air by a strong electrical cur¬ 
rent and combine it as nitrate of lime. Most of the 
nitrogen in the soil came out of the air through the 
work of bacteria which operate on the roots of such 
plants as clover, Alfalfa, beans and peas. These little 
bacteria are said to hold the “trade secret” of how 
to take nitrogen out of the air. Now, investigation 
shows that they must share the “trade secret” with 
others. 
Bulletin 155 of the Colorado Station gives some 
startling facts about the fixation of nitrogen in certain 
soils of that State. Most of us have heard of the 
“alkali” soils found in far western States. These are 
white alkalies, being due to the presence of salts like 
sulphates, chlorides and carbonates. Farmers have 
also noticed what they called “black alkali.” Certain 
spots, large and small, show a dark brown color, and 
plants on or near them are puny or die. In one case the 
greater part of an orchard suddenly died. The foliage 
turned brown and was killed. This condition occurred 
on all sorts of soils and for a long time puzzled the 
investigators. In one case a number of round black 
spots were observed. They were devoid of vegetation, 
and the surface was glistening and seemed wet. One 
of these spots was about 12 feet in diameter. Sam¬ 
ples of soil were taken from it and analyzed. The 
result showed that over 5.6 per cent of the surface 
soil was composed of the nitrates of lime, magnesia 
and soda. The trouble was not due to “alkali,” but 
the fact that there was too much nitrogen in the soil! 
Other soils showed even more nitrogen. In one case 
such soil was found to contain 1.5 per cent of nitrates. 
Taking a. uniform depth of four inches this would be 
equivalent to 10 ]/ A tons of nitrate of soda to the acre! 
THE RURAL NEW-YORKER 
As every farmer who uses fertilizer knows this would 
kill any crop. Thus we have in these Colorado soils 
small nitrogen factories where nitrates are formed 
perhaps as they were in Chili as nitrate of soda. These 
soil nitrates are formed by bacteria which have power 
to take nitrogen from the air. The bacteria which 
work on the roots of clover and similar plants store 
up the nitrogen in their bodies from which it goes to 
the plant. These soil bacteria take the nitrogen and 
combine it directly with lime, soda and magnesia. 
These bacteria do not always produce enough of the 
nitrate to be harmful, but when the carbonates are 
present and the conditions of the soil are right they 
develop so vigorously that there is actually too much 
nitrogen in the soil. Thus the problem on some of 
these Colorado soils is not one of exhausted soils, 
but one of too much fertility. It has often been said 
in a half joking way that western soils are rich 
enough to use as a fertilizer on eastern farms. This 
Colorado soil is certainly rich enough to bag and ship 
for the nitrogen it contains. If an eastern farmer 
could have a few such spots on his farm where these 
helpful bacteria w'ould make nitrates for him the fer¬ 
tilizer problem would be settled, for he would dig uji 
this nitrate soil and scatter it over his fields. While 
the problem in Colorado is how to prevent this exces¬ 
sive formation of nitrates and what to do with these 
rich spots, the study of the case may show us how to 
make the conditions under which these nitrates are 
formed so that each farm may have its fertilizer fac¬ 
tory in the form of a “nitre spot.” 
CLOVER CLIPPINGS FOR FOWLS. 
A Satisfactory Homemade Cutter. 
Having noticed several references to the need for a 
• fine feed cutter for chickens’ green feed, I give sug¬ 
gestion of a simple homemade arrangement that will 
cut clover and other like green feeds as fine as desired. 
The arrangement consists of a lawn mower (any 
width of cut), set up on box or table with cutter bar 
in perpendicular position, the machine being held in 
position by stationary blocks (fastened to cleats), front 
and back of roller, also a block on floor with wedge 
for placing. Back of the cutter bar is the feed chute 
with side plates at delivery end about eight inches 
apart and with adjustable strip set across for protec¬ 
tion to the fingers as well as to guide the grass. The 
chute is nailed to cleats which in turn are fastened 
to box. Contact end of chute sides are sawed out to 
radius of cutter. It is essential that floor of chute at 
delivery end be same height as cutting edge of bar 
(See Fig. 2,90). At the dilivery side of cutter an in¬ 
cline takes the feed and delivers it into box or basket 
on floor, or through floor or partition to fowls if 
desired. Power is applied through large wheel with 
stem and loose hand grip, as in sharpening knives of 
mower. With a substantial box arranged as above, 
the mower may be set into blocks, the floor wedge 
set up, handle introduced in driving wheel and the ap¬ 
pliance is ready for business. In a plant where cut 
feed would be largely required, it would be well to 
set up a 12 or 14-inch cutter, permanently, clamping 
to drive wheel an 18 to 24-inch balance wheel of 20 
to 25 pounds’ weight, and clamping this to drive wheel 
with two U bolts about the corresponding spokes. The 
driving wheel shaft should be nearly the same height 
from floor (See X Fig. 290) as elbow of operator. 
Before clamping the balance wheel tightly it should be 
revolved in place and trued by outside of rim to insure 
smooth running. The above will clip clover as fine as 
sawdust, or as much coarser as desired. ' 
“OTSEGO COUNTY.” 
July 2, 
THE MAN WHO DRIVES THE STEERS. 
Some men can give a lecture on fertilizing soil, 
And some can draw sad pictures of the farmer and his 
toil; 
While others tell us farming is the only happy lot. 
And many wise guys give us some everlasting rot. 
But when I want some knowledge and want it good and 
straight, 
. I don't write to some college or some old lecture skate, 
But hike to Harley Sherman, who banishes my fears, 
I'or he's the man who knows it, the man who drives the 
steers. 
We sit upon the topmost rail of his old nasture fence, 
And whittle spears and arrows, it helps the mind im¬ 
mense ; 
And then we talk of farming, and the prospect for the 
years. 
For lie's the man who knows it, the man who drives the 
steers. 
We don’t talk much of nitrogen, bacteria or lime, 
Don't understand tuberculin, haint really got the time, 
But when it comes to raising corn, and how to get the ears. 
My neighbor Harley knows it. the man who drives the 
steers. 
We talk about potatoes, Alfalfa, wheat and rye, 
And what we read in papers, and how them fellers lie; 
But one thing sure is troubling and almost brings the tears. 
So I said to neighbor Ilarley, the man who drives the 
steers: 
“The cost of living’s going up, gittin’ higher every day, 
Till the people in the city will soon subsist on hay; 
They’ve called conventions and resolved in agonizing tears. 
To show us what our duty is, the men who drive the 
steers.” , 
“The remedy is easy if you follow what you say, 
Raise more potatoes, eggs and meat, work harder every 
day, 
Reduce the price accord i riel v and everybody cheers 
When cheaper food comes rolling in, from the man who 
drives the steers.” * 
Well, Harley wunk a knowing wink and said, “I calculate 
If them guys get real hungry they may reciprocate. 
They’ve boosted freights and coal and oil, and shoes and 
sich for years, 
And thirty cents is all that conies to we who drive the 
steers.” 
“I reckon maybe they could mine a few more tons of coal. 
And like as not them city folks could cheapen standard 
oil.” 
That way to cheapen living, one very seldom hears. 
It’s easier to lecture the man who drives the steers. 
NOVA SCOTIA APPLE NOTES. 
Our apples are graded to the Canadian Government 
standard. My crops for the last two years were graded 
as follows by our packing company: 
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 
1908 .48.2 per cent. 22.7 per cent. 28.8 per cent. 
1909 .04.8 per cent. 14.5 per cent. 20.8 per cent. 
The No. 1 are average size, 90 per cent perfect; No. 
2, slightly smaller than No. 1 and SO per cent perfect; 
No. 3 are good clean cooking stock. In July of 1909 
one man thinned about one-fourth to one-third of the 
apples off the Baldwins, Gravenstein, Ben Davis, etc., 
taking off spotted and poor shaped apples and reducing 
the clusters to one apple. I had concluded from pre¬ 
vious experience that our Nova Scotia granite soils- 
lacked phosphoric acid and lime, so in Spring of 1909 
I used 1,200 to 1,400 pounds high-grade basic slag to 
the acre on the orchard. Previously I stopped using 
fertilizers and even yet I don’t use potash. The spray¬ 
ing was also much more thoroughly done, using Bor¬ 
deaux of three pounds copper sulphate, four pounds 
lime and one-half pound good Paris green to 40 gallons. 
There is still a great deal to be done before I shall be 
satisfied. In 1909 I shipped 700 barrels of graded stock. 
I have two rows of Ben Davis which are in compe¬ 
tition. Th£ trees were 23 years old in 1909, and each 
row has 10 trees. One row was fertilized in 1906 and 
1907 with 100 pounds of a 4-8-10 potato fertilizer, in 
1908 225 pounds of low-grade basic slag on the row and 
in 1909 at general rate of 1,200 pounds to the acre of 
high-class 
slag. 
1904. 
1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
bbls. 
bbls. 
bbls. 
bbls. 
bbls. 
bbls. 
Row with 
lizer ... 
ferti- 
.28.25 
10.00 
19.25 
25,lo 
31.15 
43.40 
Row without fer- 
lizer .33.75 
9.50 
25.00 
35.50 
38.05 
39.00 
Loss where fertilized, 5.50 
.50 
5.75 
.35 
6.90 
-ain.4.40 
They were packed separately in 1909, but the packer 
got the accounts mixed. Two carloads of apples went 
to the Pacific slope from here last year. I imagine 
that there are two sides to the big stories of profits 
in Oregon apples. 
My few sod trees are making an elegant growth. 
More power to Mr. Hitchings. I have two acres of 
Alfalfa and Timothy. Alfalfa, four years old, has a 
root as big as the base of my thumb. I don’t find much 
comfort in dwarf apple trees. My ideal in pruning is 
a two to two and a half foot trunk with milkpail top, 
sheared all over the top and sides like the head of a 
convict. The branches are to start from a central 
leader and be very numerous. No inside pruning done 
save on injured limbs. I question whether the cover 
crop sown in July and plowed in October has time to 
start much nitrogen gathering. joiin buchanan. 
Nova Scotia. 
