5 6o .ANATOM Y. 
which they fufFer. Tims tlie fcfamoid bones at tlie begin¬ 
ning of the gaftrocnemii mufcles, are evidently computed 
of tlie tendinous fibres only, d licfe, at the firft joint of 
tlie great toe, are as plainly the fame continued fubftance 
with the ligaments and the tendons of the adductor, flex¬ 
or, brevis, and abductor. That which is fometimes-dou¬ 
ble at the fecond joint of that toe is part of the captular 
Pgament; and, if we enumerate the other fcfamoid bones 
that are at any time found, we may obferve all of them 
formed in like manner. Their number, figure, fituation, 
and magnitude, are to uncertain, that it were in vain to 
infiffon the differences of each; and therefore we thall 
only in general remark: That wherever the tendons and 
ligaments are firmed, tlie actions of the muffles firongeft, 
and the compretlion greatelf, there Inch bones are mod 
confvionly found. That, the older the fubject is in which 
tliey are fought, their number is greater, and their (ize 
larger. And, the more labour any per (on is inured to, he 
lias, cccteris paribus, the mod numerous and larged olfa 
fefaiuoidea. 
However, as the two at the firft joint of the great toe 
are much larger than any other, are early formed, and 
areffeldom wanting, in an adult, we may judge, that, be¬ 
tides the more forcible caufe of their formation, there 
fliould alfo be fome particular advantage neceffiiry at this 
place, rather than el fe w here ; which may poflibly be, to 
allow the flexor mu teles to fend their tendons along this 
joint, lecure from compretlion in the hollow between the 
two oblong fcfamoid bones; while by removing thefe 
tendons from the centre of motion, and giving them 
the advantage of an angle at their infertion, the force of 
tlie mufcle is increafed; and therefore the great fuper-in- 
cumbent weight of our body in progreflion is more eatily 
railed. 
MARKS of a FEMALE SKELETON. 
To finifh the defeription of the bones, is generally to 
conclude the hiftory of ofteology : but, that no part of tlie 
fubject may be left untouched, it is necedary to fubjoin 
tlie diftiriguithing marks of the male and female tkcletons; 
and we have chofen to illudrate them principally in the 
latter; becaufe women having a more delicate conftitution, 
and affording lodging and nouri.fhment to their tender foe- 
tufes till they have fufficient ftrength and firmnefs to bear 
the injuries of the atmofphere, and contact of other more 
folid f ubftances, their bones are frequently incomplete, and 
always of a make in fome parts of the body different from 
thofe of tlie ro.buft male. The caufes of tlie following 
fpeciallties of the female bones may be reduced to thefe 
three: A weak lax conftitution; a fedentary inactive life, 
increafing that lax conftitution; and a proper frame for 
being mothers. 
The bones of women are fmaller in proportion to their 
length tlian thofe of men; becaufe the force of their muf- 
cles is not fo great, nor is fuch ftrong external force ap¬ 
plied to them to prevent their ftretching out in length. 
The deprej/ions , ridges, fcabrous furfaccs, and other inequa¬ 
lities made by the mufcles, are not to confpicuous in them; 
becaufe their mufcles are neither fo thick nor ftrong, nor 
fo much employed, as to make ftrong prints on their bones. 
The os frontis is more frequently divided by a continuation 
of tlie fagittal future. Their clavicles are lets crooked ; 
becaufe their arms have been lefs forcibly pulled forwards; 
which, in our European women, elpecially thofe of dif- 
tinftion, is more hindered by their diet's. Their Jhmum 
is more raifed by long cartilages below, that the thorax 
might be there widened in fome proportion to what it is 
ftiortened by the pretfure upon the diaphragm when they 
are with child. 
The deleft of bone, or the hole, in the middle of tlie 
fernum, is ofteneft found in them ; and is owing to a lax 
conftitution, by which the oflification is not fo foon com¬ 
pleted as in men, where the action of the folids is vigo¬ 
rous, and the circulation of the fluids is brifk : for a much 
fmaller hole might have ferved this purpofe; for the 
branches of the interna! mammary veflels which are fent 
to the external parts the thorax do not pafs here, but be¬ 
tween the cartilages of the ribs, before thefe are joined to 
the fter'num. Tlie cariilago xiphoidis, is oftener bifurca¬ 
ted in women than in men, for the reafon juft alligned, viz. 
a lets forcible powc-r of oflification. The fuperior carti¬ 
lages of the ribs fooner ofiify, to (upport ihe weight of the 
mammae. Ihe middle cartilages'are more flat and broad 
by the weight of the breath. The inferior cartilages are 
longer, for enlarging tlie cheft. 
Weak women, who have borne many children when 
young, often have the vettebree of their back bent forw ards, 
and their JUmum deprefled, or become round-fliouldered 
and fiat-breafted, by the preflure and weight of the im¬ 
pregnated uterus, and by the ftrong aftion of the abdo¬ 
minal mufcles. The os facrum is broader, and turned much 
more backw ards, for enlarging the pelvis. The os coccyois 
is more moveable, and much lets bent forwards, to faci¬ 
litate the birth. The off a ilium are more hollow, and more 
reflected outwards, and confequently further removed from 
each other, in order to w iden the lower part of their ab¬ 
domen, and for the better fupport of tlie impregnated 
uterus. The ridge on the upper part of the os pubis is 
larger in fuch women as have borne children, being ex¬ 
tended by the ftrong action of the mufeuli refti abdomi¬ 
nis. The cartilage between the two olfa pubis, efpecially 
in women who have borne children, is thicker than in men, 
by which tlie pelvis is more capacious in females. The 
conjoined furfaces of the ofj'a pubis , and of the ejfa innomina- 
ta and Jacrum, are lefs, the angle under tlie [ymphyfs of tlie 
effa pubis is much larger, and the arches formed below and 
behind by the ojfa ilium and ifekium are wider, which, with 
the ftraighter os facrum, and more diftant lubera ifehii, leave 
a larger patfage for the exclution of the child in birth. 
The great tuberofity of the offa ifehium is flatter in women 
than in men, becaufe it is more prefled upon in the feden¬ 
tary life which females moftly lead. In confequence of 
tlie pelvis of women being wider, the articulations of their 
thigh-bones mud be farther removed from each other; 
and therefore a larger fpace is left for the procreation and 
birth of children; which diftance of the thighs may be 
one reafon why women in running tlnitfle more from one 
fide to the other than men, to preterve the centre of gra¬ 
vity of their bodies from falling too far to a fide of the 
joint of the thigh that fupports them w hen the other is 
raifed, which would endanger their tumbling to the ground. 
The annexed Plate reprefents a front and back View of 
the Human Bones, or Skeleton, with fome of the ligaments 
and cartilages which connect the bones to each other. 
FRONT VIEW. 
Head and Neck 1 , a. Os frontis. b, Os parietale : be¬ 
tween a and b, part of the coronal future. c, The pars 
fquamofa of the temporal bone : between b and c, the 
fquamous future : below the pars fquamofa, the zygoma : 
and, lower down above f the maftoid procefs: between 
the pars fquamofa and the cavity, which contains the eye¬ 
ball, called orbit, the temporal procefs of theTphenoid 
bone is teen, d, Os make : above d, a portion of the tranf- 
verfe future, e, Os maxillare fuperius, with the eight teeth 
of the right fide. The nafal procefs of the fuperior max¬ 
illary bone has the os nafi joined, by the nafal future, to its 
infide ; and, at the outfide, within the orbit, the os unguis. 
The otfa nafi joined to each other before, by the anterior 
nafal future, f Os maxillare inferius, with fixteen teeth; 
the four anterior named inciforcs, the two corner ones canini , 
and the five pofterior on each fide molares : oppofite to f 
the angle of the lower jaw: above A the condyloid pro¬ 
cefs, by which the jaw is connefted to the temporal bone, 
at the root of the zygoma : and, behind the os malae, the 
coronoid procefs. g, The feven cervical vertebrae, with 
their intermediate cartilages: oppofite'to g, their tranfverfe 
proceffes. 
Trunk, a. Sternum: a, its middle piece, to which 
one half of the cartilage that connefts the fecond rib, the 
whole 
