GEOGRAPHY. 
368 
Wliat climate is Spitzberger. in, at lat. 8o° N. > Anfwer, 
the 291I1.—For an explanation of tlie climates, I'ee arti- 
cle 58, in the preceding p.'354. 
21. To find the antizci, the periaci, and the antitodes, of any 
place. —Biiiig tiie given place to the meridian, then, in 
the oppolite hemifphere, and in the fame degree of'lati- 
tiide with the given place, will be the antceci. The 
given place remaining under the meridian, fet the index 
to 12, and turn tlie globe till the other 12 is under the 
index j then the ptriceci will be under the fame degree 
of latitude with the given place, and the antipodes of the 
given place will now be under the fame point of the ■ 
brazen meridian where the antceci flood before. 
22. To find the two days on which the fun is in the zenith of 
any given place between the. tropics. —That parallel of decli¬ 
nation which palfes through the given place, will cut 
the ecliptic line upon the globe in two points, which 
denote the fun’s place ; againft which, on the horizon, 
will be found the days required. The fun is vertical at 
Barbadoes April 24, and Augult i8. 
23. The time and place being given, to find all thofe plates 
where the fun is rifing, fetting, culminating j and alfo where it 
is day-light, twilight, or dark-night. —Find the place where 
ilie fun is vertical at the given hour, redtify for the la¬ 
titude of that place, and bring it to the meridian. Then 
all the places that are in the wefl femicircle of the hori¬ 
zon, have the fun rifmg ; thofe in the eaf femicircle, 
liave it felling-, th.ofe under the meridian above the ho¬ 
rizon, have it culminating -, and all places above the ho¬ 
rizon, have the fun fo many degrees above the horizon 
as tlie places themfelves are. Thofe places that are be¬ 
low the horizon, but within 18° of it, have twilight ; 
thofe lower than 18° have dark-night ; and to thofe under 
tlie meridian, it is midnight. 
24. To find the place of the moon, or any planet, for any given 
time. —Take tlie nautical almanac, or White’s Ephemeris, 
and againlt the given day of the month will be found 
tlie degree and minute of the fign which the moon or pla¬ 
net polfelfes at noon. The degree thus found, and marked 
in the ecliptic on the globe, you may proceed to find the 
declination, right afeenfion, latitude, longitude, alti¬ 
tude, amplitude, azimuth, rifing, fetting, &c. 
25. To find the planets which arc above the horizon at funfet, 
upon any given day and latitude .—Find the fun’s place for 
the given day, bring it to the meridian, fet the index 
hour to 12, and elevate the pole for the given latitude, 
then bring the fun’s place to tlie weflern femicircle of 
the horizon, and oblerve what figns are in that part of 
the ecliptic above the horizon; then look to the ephe- 
ineris for the day, and it will be feen what planets are 
in thofe figns, for fucli will be vifible on the evening of 
that day. 
26. To find whether Venus be a morning or an evening far .— 
Rettify the globe for the latitude and fun’s place; find 
the fituation of Venus by an ephemeris, and tlick there 
a fmall black patch; bring the fun’s place to the edge of 
tlie eafiern horizon. If Venus be in anledicentia, that is, 
for infiance, in Taurus when the fun is in Gemini, Ihe 
will be a morning fiar.—But, if Venus be in conjequentia, 
that is, for example, in Gemini v/hen the fun is ini aiirus, 
ihe will let after the fun, and be an evening fiar. 
27. To find all the places to which a lunar eclipfe will be 
vifible at any ufi'ant .—Find the place to which the fun is 
vertical at the given time, and bring that place to the 
zenith, and the eclipfe will be vifible to ail the hemi¬ 
fphere below the horizon, becaufe the moon is oppofite 
to the fun.—Since lunar eclipfes continue, in general, 
for Si conlidcrable time together, they may be feen in 
more places than in one hemifphere of the earth ; for, 
by the earth’s rotation about its axis during the time of 
the'eclipfe, the moon will rife to feveral places after its 
Commencement. But we cannot by a globe only, deter¬ 
mine the places to which a folar eclipfe is vifible, be- 
caufe that eclipfe does not happen to the whole hemi¬ 
fphere next the fun, nor does it happen at the fame time 
to thofe places where it is vifible. Calculations are there¬ 
fore necelidry ; tor which fee the article Astronomy, 
vol. ii. p. 443-452. And for the change of feafons, ai-.d 
other phenomena of the earth not explained above, fee 
the fame article. 
Of historical GEOGRAPHY. 
The hifiorical, or progrefiive, geography of the world, 
is iinqiiefiionably a mofi captivating as well as interefi- 
ing branch ot ftudy ; lince it acquaints us, not only with 
the ancient and modern nations of the earth, but intro¬ 
duces us to a pleafing view of the primitive economy of 
mankind ; of the progrefiive fiate of refinement and man¬ 
ners in fociety; ot the arts both of favage and of civi¬ 
lized life; and of tlie charadters and cofiiime of the in¬ 
habitants of the whole globe. Inlhort, this department 
ot fpeculative literature may begin with the firfi man; 
rnay trace the early fiages of population among the antel 
diltivian nations; and conne6t theirhifiory with the pro¬ 
grefiive geography of the fons of Noah, quite up to tlie 
era of the prefent times. 
Every event, and every circumftance, attemding fuch 
relearch, will concur in proving, that mankind are not 
compofed ot fpecies efientially different from each other; 
but tliat, on the contrary, there was originally but one 
fpecies ol the human race, which, after multiplying and 
fpreading over the wliole furface of the earth, have un¬ 
dergone various changes by the influence of climate, 
food, mode of living, epidemic difeafes, and the fortiii- 
tons mixture of dilliniilar individuals: that, at firfi, thel'e 
changes were i'carcely difcernible, producingonly trifling 
and individual varieties, which afterwards became fpe- 
cific, by being longer continued ; and were rendered fiill 
more firongly marked, and more pennanciit, by the con¬ 
tinual action of the fame caufes; and thus they have 
been tranfmitted from generation to generation, as defor¬ 
mities or difeales pals from parents to children, or from 
one hereditary family to another. 
It will be feen, by a comparifon of the ancient geo¬ 
graphy with the modern, that there are iiiimenfe regions 
ol country, inhabited by people, who, although they 
have obtained among themfelves dift'erent names, are 
neverthelefs clearly and difiindlly of the fame origin; 
only varied by the arts of life, by the cultivation of 
manners, and the polifli of fociety. 
In a fimilar way, the harfli and rugged features of un¬ 
known countries have been brought into vie\v, by the 
immortal Cook, and other circum-navigators; at the 
peril of whofe lives difeoveries have been made far be¬ 
yond the boundaries of ancient hifiory. And by the 
perfevering indufiry of man, the progrefs of agriculture, 
and the extenfion of commerce, thofe diftant regions 
have been made to put on the face of luxuriance and 
plenty ; and to pour out, as frelh incitements to civiliza¬ 
tion, their liidden fiores, which the unreftrained hand of 
Providence has made indigenous in dirt'erent parts of the 
globe, for the fufientation and comfort of his creatures, 
wherever found. 
We cannot, however, in this article, purfue the thread 
of liifiorical geography throughout the wide field of in¬ 
formation which it prefeiits to our view, and which it 
is the province of the geographer to invefiigate and di- 
gefi. Our limits confine us within the circle of a fmall 
horizon; and our plan confirains us to notice, under the 
proper names or titles of different countries, many effen- 
tial particulars in their geography, as conne6led with 
their phyfical and political exifiencei. To each of thefe 
fpecific titles, therefore, in the order of the alphabet in 
our Encyclopaedia, we mufi refer the reader for more 
copious information; while we deem it convenient, if 
not effential, to give, in this place, a Summary of Ancient, 
and of Modern, Geography, whereby the young fiudent 
may readily trace the various names and revolutions of 
partictilifr 
