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SAm Aust NZ NG 
SAm NZ Aust NG 
Fig. 7. Retrieving biogeographic pattern using a paraphyletic species, a. An unreduced area- 
cladogram derived from a taxon-cladogram with a paraphyletic species which is widespread in 
Australia (Aust) and New Zealand (NZ), a monophyletic species restricted to South America 
(SAm) and another monophyletic species which is restricted to New Guinea (NG). b, A well- 
corroborated estimate of the phylogeny of these areas, derived from the phylogeny of another 
taxon, c. Assumption 0, which assumes all taxa to be monophyletic, would retrieve this area 
cladogram from that in 7a. It conflicts with that in 7b. d-e. Both these area-cladograms (and that 
in 7c) would be allowed by Assumption 1; e is congruent with the cladogram in 7b, and would 
be favoured as a general area-cladogram. Assumption 2 would allow either (SAm,(Aust,NG)) or 
(SAm,(NZ,NG)). Both are combinable with 7b, which again would be the favoured solution. 
