mi 
LTTERATURE. 
Pontus; but the mod celebrated was that of Auguftus in 
the temple of Apollo Palatinus. 
Philological learning flourifhed chiefly at Alexandria. 
The principal grammarians of this period were Callima¬ 
chus, Apollonius Rhodius, Aratus, Nicander, Zenodotus, 
Eratolthenes, Ariftophanes of Byzantium, and, the molt 
renowned of all, Ariltarchus. The chief hiftorians were, 
in Greek, Polybius, Dionyfius of Halicarnafl'us, Diodorus 
Siculus ; and, in Latin, Julius Caefar, Hirtius, Sall-ult, 
Cornelius Nepos, and Livy. The chief geographers were 
Nearchus, Dicsearchus, Symnus, Agatharcides, Eratof- 
thenes, Pytheas of Marfeilles, Hipparchus of Nice, and 
Dionyfius Periegetes. The mathematics were cultivated 
by the Platonifts; but Euclid was the great matter of this 
fcience. The moft learned of his fucceflors were Apollo¬ 
nius of Perga, Ctefibius, Hero, and Archimedes. Altro- 
nomers ; Ariltarchus of Samos, Hipparchus of Nice, Ge- 
triinus of Rhodes, Sofigenes of Alexandria. The Roman 
mathematicians were Papirius, Scipio Nafica, C. Sulph. 
Gallus, and P. Nigidius Figulus, the particular friend of 
Cicero. The moll ancient taftic writer, (who lived in 
this period, about 360 years before Chrilt,) was Aineas, 
furnained Tadticus. 
Philofophy, during this period, was by Ariltotle carried 
to a degree of perfection which it had never yet attained. 
His principal fcholars and followers in the Peripatetic 
fchool were Theophraftus, Strato, Ariltoxenus, Dicaear- 
chus, Demetrius Phalereus, Heraclides Ponticus. The 
founder of the Stoic fchool was Zeno ; whofe principal 
followers were Cleanthes', Chryfippus, Dionyfius of Baby¬ 
lon, Pansetius of Rhodes, Pofidonius of Apamea. Epi¬ 
curus was alfo the founder of a philofophic fchool. His 
doftrines were finally illuffcrated by Lucretius in his cele¬ 
brated poem. The fyftem of fcepticifm had for its au¬ 
thor Pyrrho of Elis, whofe difciples were Timon, Aiene- 
iidemus, Numenius, Naufiphanes, and Sextus Empiricus. 
In Italy, philofophy made little progrefs before Lucullus; 
but it was cultivated, and highly cultivated, in all its 
branches, by Cicero, and by feveral of his contemporaries. 
Of the fine arts, the firlt treatife on poetry was written 
by Arifiotle. Horace’s Epiftle to the Pifos may alfo be 
called poetics. As to poetry itfelf, it was (till cultivated, 
but took a new turn in Greece. The Argonautica of 
Apollodius Rhodius, Lycophron, the Phtenomena of Ara¬ 
tus, the Theriaca and Alexipharmica of Nicander, and 
the Hymns of Callimachus, are all of this period. Palto- 
ral poetry was brought.to its liigheft perfection by Theo¬ 
critus, Bion, and Mofchus. At Rome, dramatic poetry 
made its firlt appearance in this period. Its father was 
Livius Andronicus; fucceeded by Najvius, Attius, and 
Pacuvius ; but Plautus and Terence matured it; at lead 
with relpett to comedy ; for Rome had yet produced no 
tragic poet. In other lpecies of poefy, however, the La¬ 
tins excelled towards the end of this period. Lucretius, 
Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, are 
all mafterly writers in their various characters; but this 
was the golden age of Rome. The firlt formal treatife 
on rhetoric, as well as the firlt art of poetry, we owe to 
Ariltotle. Of orators, we meet, in Greece, with the names 
of Demades, Hyperides, Dinarchus, and Demetrius Pha¬ 
lereus : at Rome, thofe of Cethegus, Cato, the Scipios, 
the Gracchi, Hortenfius, Craffus, and Ctelar; and the 
mailer of eloquence, both in theory and practice, the im¬ 
mortal Tully. The chief writers on itatiliics, or politics, 
in this period, are Ariltotle, Cato, Varro, and Cicero. On 
phyfics, and natural hiltory, Ariltotle, Theophraltus, La- 
cretius, Antigonus. The medical fcience, during this 
period, was cultivated by the peripatetic fchool with fuc- 
cefs, particularly by Theophraltus, the difciple of Arif- 
totle ; in Egypt, by Herophilus and Eraliltratus ; and at 
Rome, by Afclepiades. 
As to the ltate of jurifpruder.ee : In the Ealt, the king’s 
will was a law. In Greece, the Aitolic and Achaic union 
made laws at the time of their general affemblies; but 
thefe were difregarded by Ariltotle, who formed a new 
Vol. XII. No. 872. 
fyftem of pofitive law, founded on the law of nature. At 
Rome, the people had from the beginning the legifiative 
power, but more in appearance than in reality ; as the fe- 
nate, by means of the augurs, obtained whatever they 
wilhed. The laws of the twelve tables were brought by 
the decemvirs from Greece 44.8 years before Chrilt. Be- 
lides thefe, the Praetorial Edicts, and the Senatus-Confulta, 
were confidered as ftatute-law. The moll renowned ju- 
rifts were Appius Cl. Caecus, Cn. Fulvius, the Scaevolre, 
P. Cincius Alimentus, L. ASlius, Servius Sulpicius Ru¬ 
fus, C. Trebatius Telia, and Alfenus Varus. 
Theology, during thefe days, was in a difmal ftate, even 
among the Jews; who were divided into three feCts, the 
Pharifees, the Sadducees, and the Effenes. In this period, 
however, the canon of the Old Teftament was completed j 
and the Greek verfion of the Bible called the Septuagint 
was made at Alexandria, in the reign of Ptol. Philadel- 
phus. The heathen world was divided between idolatry, 
fuperftition, and atheifm. 
M. Meufel not only marks the ftate of literature in ail 
its branches, and gives the names of the writers who ex¬ 
celled in each, but he points out the belt editions of their 
works, and the moderns who have commented on them, 
or vindicated their particular doctrines. But for this in¬ 
formation, in itfelf extremely ufeful, we mull refer to the 
work, as it would lengthen this article beyond all reafon- 
able bounds, and befides would occafion us to repeat or 
to anticipate what mult be found under the name of each 
writer refpe£tively. 
III. From the Death of Augujtus to the Irruption of the Goths 
into Italy ; if years. 
The general diffufion of knowledge, during this pe¬ 
riod, was not conliderable. Although the princes of the 
race of Auguftus were the friends of literature, and were 
in fome degree learned themfelves, yet learning did not 
flourilh, and tafte perceptibly decayed. Free genius was 
indulged at the rifk of life. Eloquence was abandoned 
to pedants, philofophy to fophifts, education to Haves ; 
and all were at the nod of tyrants. From Quintilian and 
Petronius, we learn that the period already felt its de¬ 
bility approaching ; and in lefs than two hundred years 
its want of vigour was apparent. The caufes of this were, 
(befides the trammels placed by defpotifm on the freedom 
of thinking and writing,) long and almoft continual 
wars, prevailing luxury and effeminacy, the abufe of phi- > 
lofophy or rather of its name, the rage for magic, for di¬ 
vination, and for theatrical fpeftacles; and, above all, 
flight and luperficial education. To this end, alfo, the 
propagation of Chriftianity in tome meafure contributed ; 
not from its own nature, but from the circumllances then 
exifling. The chief promoters of learning, during this 
period, were the emperors Vefpafian, Trajan, Hadrian, 
Marcus Aurelius, Alex. Severus, Conftantine I. and Ju¬ 
lian. The writers whofe general influence, with refpeft 
to literature, was the greateft, were, Seneca, the younger 
Pliny, Plutarch, Lucian, Origen, and Eufebius. 
The Jews had Hill lchools in Judea, until the deftruc- 
tion of Jerufalem ; particularly at Bethoron, Jerunia, and 
Tiberias. They had alfo feminaries at Nahardea, Sora, 
and Pumbeditha. In the heathen lchools of Egypt, the 
chief of which was at Alexandria, were taught the Greek 
philofophy, mathematics, juri(prudence, medicine, magic, 
and allrology. In Greece, the lchools of Athens (till 
fiourilhed ; and at Rome and in Italy, they were firlt en¬ 
dowed from the public treafury by Vefpafian. The prin¬ 
cipal fchool, after that of Rome, was a£ Milan. In France, 
that of Marfeilles was the molt reputable. The Chriltians 
had lchools at Athens, at Antioch, at Nicomedia, at Ni- 
copolis, and at Alexandria. The principal libraries were' 
that of Alexandria, in a great meafure deftroyed by Chril- 
tian fanaticifin ; that of Conli'antinople, founded by Con- 
ftantius, and lo greatly enriched by Julian, that at length 
it contained reo.ooo volumes; that of Antioch; that 
of Rome called Aides Tiberiana; and the Capitolini, 
9 S ' which,* 
