SO 2 N U M 
felves with copying their Grecian matters. The alphabet 
of the Arabians had been employed for expretting num¬ 
bers exactly in the fame way as that of the Greeks. The 
letters, in their fuccettion, were fometimes applied to fig- 
nify the lower of the ordinal numbers; but more gene¬ 
rally they were diftinguilhed into three clafles, each com- 
pofed of nine characters, correfponding to units, tens, 
and hundreds. Though, like nioft of the oriental na¬ 
tions, the Arabians write from right to left, yet they fol¬ 
lowed implicitly the Greek mode of ranging the numerals, 
and performing their calculations. With the fame de¬ 
ference they received the other lettons of their great maf- 
ters; and very feldom hazarded any improvement, unlefs 
where induttry and patient obfervation led them inciden¬ 
tally to extend menfuration, and to rectify and enlarge 
the balls of aftronotny. It feems highly probable, there¬ 
fore, that the Arabians did not adopt the Indian nume¬ 
rals until a late period, and after the torrent of victory 
had opened an eafy communication with Hindooftan. 
They might derive their information through the medium 
of the Perfians, who fpoke a dialeCt of their language, 
had embraced the fame religion, and were, like them, in¬ 
flamed by the love of fcience and the fpirit of conqueft. 
The Arabic numerals, accordingly, refemble exceedingly 
the Periic, which are now current over India, and there 
etteemed the fafhionable characters. But the Perfians 
themfelves, though no longer the fovereigns of Hin- 
doaftan, yet difplay their fuperiority over the feeble Gen- 
toos, fince they generally fill the offices of the revenue, 
and have the reputation of being the moll expert calcu¬ 
lators in the Ealt. 
The Indian origin of the numerals is farther confirmed 
by the teftimony of Maximus Pianudes, a monk of Con- 
llantinople, who wrote, about the middle of the four¬ 
teenth century, a book on practical arithmetic, entitled 
A oy.-r/.yj IviSi y.vj, or Yriipoeia. y.x? IvJy?, i) \syofAsro /j.£ya.\v> ; 
“ The great Indian mode of Calculating.” In his intro¬ 
duction, he explains concifely the ufe of the characters 
in notation. But Pianudes appears neither to have re¬ 
ceived his information direCtly from India, nor through 
the medium of the Perfians, the neareft neighbours on 
the eaitern confines of the Greek empire. It is molt pro¬ 
bable, that he was made acquainted with thofe numerals 
by his intercourfe with Europe, having twice vifited, on 
a fort of embafly, the republic of Venice; for, of two 
manufcripts prelerved in the library of St. Mark, the one 
has the characters of the Arabians, and the other has 
that variety which was firft current in Europe, while 
neither of them fhows the original characters ufed in Hin- 
doottan. 
2. But the moft important inquiry is, to afcertain the 
period at which the knowledge of our prefent numerals 
was firft fpresd over Europe. As it certainly had pre¬ 
ceded the invention of the art of printing, the difficulty 
of refolving the queftion is much increafed by the necef- 
fity of fearching and examining old and often doubtful 
manufcripts. Some authors would date the introduction 
of thole ciphers as early as the beginning of the ele¬ 
venth century ; while others, with far greater appearance 
of reafon, are difpofed to place it two hundred and fifty 
years later. 
While the thickeft darknefs brooded over the Chriftian 
world, the Arabians, repofing after their brilliant con- 
quefts, cultivated with affiduity the learning and fcience 
of Greece. If they contributed little from their own 
ftore of genius, they yet preferved and fanned the holy 
fire. Nor did they affeCt any concealment, but would 
freely communicate to their pupils and vifitors that pre¬ 
cious knowledge which they had fo zealoully drawn from 
different quarters. Some of the more afpiring youth in 
England and France, difgufted with the wretched trifling 
of the fchools, reforted for information to Spain ; and, 
having the courage to fubdue the rooted abhorrence en¬ 
tertained in that age againft infidels, took lettons in plii- 
B E R. 
lofophy from the accomplilhed Moors. Among thofe 
pilgrims of fcience, the moft celebrated was Gerbert, a 
monk, born of obfcure parents, at Aurillac, in Auvergne; 
but promoted by his talents fucceflively to the bilhoprics 
of Rheims and of Ravenna, and finally raifed to the pa¬ 
pal chair, which he filled during the laft four years of the 
tenth century, under the name of Sylvefter II. This ar¬ 
dent genius ftudied arithmetic, geometry, and aftronomy, 
among the Saracens; and, on his return to France, 
charged with various knowledge, he was etteemed a pro¬ 
digy of learning by his contemporaries. Nor did the 
malice of rivals fail to reprefent him as a magician, 
leagued with the infernal powers. Gerbert wrote largely 
on arithmetic and geometry, and gave rules for Ihort- 
ening the operations of the abacus, which he likewife 
termed algoi'ifmus, or “ the art of numbering.” In feme 
manufcripts, the numbers are exprelfed in ciphers; but 
we are not thence entitled to infer, as many writers have 
done, that he had,actually the merit of introducing thofe 
characters into Europe. The context of his difeourfe 
will not fupport fuch a conclufion. The figures were 
not yet, as we have feen, known to the Arabians them¬ 
felves ; and mult have long afterwards been inferted in 
thofe copies, for the convenience of tranferibers. 
Nor can we fafely refer the introduction of Arabic 
figures to our famous Roger Bacon, whofe various at¬ 
tainments, and unwearied refearch after genuine know¬ 
ledge, raifed him far above the level of his contempora¬ 
ries ; but who, to the difgrace of his age and country, 
buffered a (harp perfecution, and a tedious imprifonment, 
on the ridiculous charge of praCtifing magic. But the 
writings of Bacon really difcover no proofs of his ac¬ 
quaintance with the denary notation; and the faCt com¬ 
monly ftated as an irrefiftible evidence in his favour, bears 
a very different interpretation. An almanac, now pre¬ 
ferved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and containing 
numerals in their earlieft forms, has, by the credulity of 
after-times, been, with many other feats and inventions, 
aferibed of courfe to the great necromancer. But un¬ 
luckily this production is marked with the date 1292, the 
very year in which Bacon, after a lingering illnefs, ex¬ 
pired ; and it befides profeffes to have been calculated for 
the meridian of Touloufe, and had confequently been 
imported, without doubt, from France. Nothing indeed 
appears to be worfe founded than the attempts to repre¬ 
fent the elder Bacon in the light of an original inventor. 
Notwithftanding the obfeurity of his writings, it needs 
but a little criticifm to difpel the conceits fomented by 
national partiality. Friar Bacon advances no claim even 
to the difeovery of gunpowder, which has been fo gratui- 
toufly aferibed to him. On the contrary, he admits that 
the boys in his time were acquainted with the ufe of this 
fubftance in fire-works 5 and he merely pretends, in a fort 
of anagram, to give a receipt for making it ftronger and 
better than ordinary. 
About the fame period, John of Halifax, named, in the 
quaint Latinity then ufed, Sacro Bojco, who had likewife 
travelled, wTote his Treatife De Sphasro, in fome copies of 
which the numbers are given in ciphers. But it appears 
from examination, that fuch abbreviations were intro¬ 
duced afterwards by the tranferibers. 
There is little doubt that the Arabic figures were firft 
ufed by aftronomers, and afterwards circulated in the 
almanacs over Europe. The learned Gerard Voffius 
places this epoch about the year 1250; but the judicious 
and moft laborious Du Cange thinks that ciphers were 
unknown before the fourteenth century 5 and Mabillon, 
whofe diplomatic refearches are immenle, afl'ures us, that 
he very rarely found them in the dates of any writings 
prior to the year 1400. Kircher, with fome air of proba¬ 
bility, feeks to refer the introduction of our numerals to 
the altronomical tables which, after vaft labour and ex- 
penfe, were publiflied by the famous Alphonfo king of 
Caftile, in 1252, and again, more correCtly, four yeafs 
afterwards. 
