768 O R N I T H 
ward and difficult, walking like men in fetters ; henee 
Linnaeus ftyles their feet pedes compedes. The legs of all 
doven-footed water-fowl are long, as they mull wade in 
fearch of food; of the palmated, fhort, except thofe of 
the flamingo, the avofet, and the courier. 
5. Feet (pedes'), in all land-birds that perch havB a 
large back toe: moft of them have three toes forward, 
and one backward. Woodpeckers, parrots, and other 
birds that climb much, have two forward, two backward; 
but parrots have the power of bringing one of their hind 
toes forward while they are feeding themfelves. Owls 
have alfo the power of turning one of their fore toes 
backward. All the toes of the fwift turn forwards, which 
is peculiar among land-birds; the trida&ylous wood¬ 
pecker is alfo anomalous, having only two toes forward, 
one backward ; the great oftrich has but two toes in all. 
6 . Toes ( digiti ). The toes of all waders are divided ; 
but, between the exterior and middle toe, is generally a 
fmall web, reaching as far as the firft joint. The toes of 
birds that fwim are either plain, as in the Angle inftance 
of the common water-hen, or gallinule; or pinnated, as 
in the coots and grebes ; or entirely webbed or palmated, 
as in all other fwimmers. All the plover tribe, or Cha- 
radrii, want the back toe; in the fwimmers the fame want 
prevails among the albatrofles and auks. No water-fowl 
perch except certain herons, the corvorant, the moor¬ 
hen, and the fliag. 
7. Claws (vngues). Rapacious birds have very ftrong, 
hooked, and lharp, claws, vultures excepted. All land- 
birds that rooft on trees have alfo hooked claws, to ena¬ 
ble them to perch in fafety while afleep. The gallina¬ 
ceous tribe have broad concave claws for fcraping up the 
ground. Grebes have flat nails like the human. Among 
water-fowl, only the fkua and the black-toed gull have 
ftrong hooked or aquiline claws. All land-birds perch 
on trees, except the ftruthious and fome of the gallina¬ 
ceous tribes. Parrots climb ; woodpeckers creep up the 
bodies and boughs of trees ; fwallows cling. 
The Parts of Birds will be better underftood by infpeCt- 
ing the annexed Engraving; where a, fig. 1. fliows the 
upper mandible; b, the under mandible; c, the front ; 
d, the chin ; e, the crown ; f, the hind-head ; g-, the nape ; 
ii, the fcrag, or neck above ; i, the neck and throat; k, 
fhebreaft; l, the belly; m, the ftioulders ; n, the fpu- 
rious wing; o, the fmaller wing-coverts 5 p, the greater 
wing-coverts; q, the primary quill-feathers ; r, the fecon- 
dary quill-featners; s, the fcapulars; t, fub-axillaries; 
v, inner wing-coverts; v, the reCtrices, or tail; w, the 
vent; x, the thighs ; y, the legs ; z, the feet and toes. 
Fig. 2. A. bill furniflied with a tooth-like procefs, and 
briftles at the bafe : a, the lores ; b, the temples ; e, the 
cheeks. This is the head of the butcher-bird. 
Fig. 3. A bill with the upper mandible hooked at the 
point, and furniflied with a cere, d, at the bafe, in which 
are placed the noftrils : the vulture. 
Fig. 4. A flat bill, peftinated at the edges, and fur- 
nifned at the tip with a claw or nail: the duck. 
Fig. 5. A foot formed for perching: three toes before 
and one behind : the eagle. Fig. 6. An ambulatory, or 
walking foot, having a fpur behind : the pheafant. Fig. 7. 
A climbing toot ; two toec before anti two behind : 
the woodpecker. Fig. 8. A palmate or webbed foot: the 
corvorant. Fig. 9. A femi-palmate or half-webbed foot: 
the Recurviroftra, or avofet. Fig. 10. A three-toed 
webbed foot. Fig. 11. A lobate foot: the Colymbus 
podiceps, or grebe. Fig. 12. A pinnate, finned, or fcol- 
loped, foot; as in the coots and fand-pipers. Fig. 13. A 
foot wanting the back-toe, formed for running only, as 
Otis, the buftard ; and, 14. Struthio caffuarias, the caffo- 
wary, 15. A foot with two toes only: Struthio camelus, 
the common oftrich. 
Adverting to fig. 7. it is proper to obferve, that the 
difpofition of two toes before, and two behind, has been 
remarked only in a few genera of birds; and the Rev. 
Revett Sheppard, F.L.S. has fliown, we think fatisfaCtorily, 
OLOGY. 
that it is not particularly available for'climbing, although 
it is fubfervient to other purpofes. The cuckoo is not a 
climbing bird ; and yet the conformation of its feet is 
the fame with that of the woodpeckers; whereas the 
nut-hatch and tree-creeper, which run up and down 
trees, have their toes placed in the ufual manner. The 
two hind-toes of the cuckoo enable it to prelerve its ba¬ 
lance when it bends forward, the attitude in which it 
pours forth its pleafing and protracted note. By the 
fame adaptation, the parrots more fecurely grafp their 
food, ftep from one branch to another, or remain in a fuf- 
pended pofition. With refpeCl to the woodpecker, this 
gentleman obferves, that in boring trees, (in which oc¬ 
cupation the bird is often engaged for a confiderable 
length of time,) its weight is thrown backward, and 
thus the fupply of two toes behind is rendered extremely 
necefl'ary forits fupport. The phrafe pedesfcanforii ftiould 
therefore be cancelled, as inducing an erroneous idea; 
and Mr. Sheppard fuggefts the fubftitution of the epithet 
comprehenforii. Linn. Tranf. vol.xii. Part II. 1820. 
STRUCTURE, HABITS, and MANNERS, of BIRDS. 
If we proceed from the hiftory of quadrupeds (fee the 
article Mammalia, vol. xiv.) to inquire into that of the 
feathered race, which conftitutes the fecond great clafs 
of the animal kingdom, we find nature in this depart¬ 
ment poffeffmg the fame vivifying power. Here fhe feems 
ftill more prolific, and more diverfified in her operations. 
Whether w’e examine her productions in the earth, the 
air, or the fea, we find no fpace unoccupied, no mark 
indicating that her powers are exhaufted or fatigued. In 
all her families of quadrupeds, birds, infeCts, and fifties, 
flie fports with unabating luxuriancy, and teems with fe¬ 
cundity. The naturalift, in every ftep he advances in 
his inquiries, meets with multiplied and irrefiftible evi¬ 
dences of the exiftence of a creative mind. The power, 
wifdom, and munificence, of the great Parent of the uni- 
verfe, in proportion as he becomes acquainted with their 
effeCts, begin to force themfelves upon his mind, with 
all the energy of conviction. Thus Nature is filent 
only to thofe who know' not how to interrogate her. To 
the man of an inquifitive mind flie offers ample inftruc- 
tion, with regard to the rank he holds in the works of 
creation, to the materials of his enjo3 r ment, to the num¬ 
ber and variety of thofe creatures which he is deftined to 
govern'; and, while fhe thus difplays before him the ex¬ 
tent of his obligations, flie alfo leads him to a knowdedge 
of that Being to whom he owes them. 
If from the miniftry of quadrupeds man derives his 
moft confiderable afliftance in maintaining his influence 
over the foil, it is to the feathered race he is indebted for 
many of his pleafures, and for his moft innocent enjoy¬ 
ments : among them he has friends of zealous and fteady 
attachment, and few enemies of any force or inveteracy. 
The race of birds feems peculiarly formed by the hand 
of nature to pleaie his fenfes. By the richnefs and bril¬ 
liancy of their colours, the melody of their voices, the 
beauty and elegance of their form/they charm the eye of 
the beholder, loothe his ear, and delight and captivate 
his imagination. By thefe. qualities, they invariably af¬ 
ford him pleafure, whether he contemplate the melodious 
grove, the fereaming precipice, or the noify foreft : by thefe 
they cheer his folitude ; they animate and adorn the feenes 
of nature. The examination of their inftinCts for the 
purpofes of preferving the.life of the individual, or of per¬ 
petuating thefpecies; their attachments, their averfions, 
the whole of their manners and economy, afford fubjeCV of 
admiration, and prefent views of the wifdom of Provi¬ 
dence, equally pleafing and inftruCtive. 
With all thefe allurements, the hiftory of birds, or 
fcience of ornithology, has been but little ftudied, and 
is far from having arrived at that degree of perfection to 
which the knowdedge of quadrupeds has been carried. 
Yet birds are not only more numerous than quadrupeds, 
but are alfo fubjeCt to much greater varieties, and lefs 
confined 
