THE CULTIVATOR. 
95 
oxen and horses, and cows that gave milk I cut as above, except I put 
about two parts hay and one part straw. I fed no grain or mill stuff 
during the winter. My stock never went through a winter better. I 
can safely say that I saved by the operation at least 30 per cent on my 
fodder, over the usual way of feeding. I am fully satisfied that when 
our farmers become fully acquainted with the use of the Straw Cutter, 
they would not be without one if at twice the price which is charged 
for them. Yours, &c. J. W. DOUGLASS. 
Lockport, Jul y 23, 1836. __ f* 
LOADING HAY. 
If I can communicate to the public any thing useful, they have my 
consent to take all the advantage of it they can, without paying any 
thing for the right. 
What I claim as an improvement, is the laying hay upon the rack so 
that no labor shall be lost in pitching off. Our hay rack is wide, so as 
to contain three tiers of fork fulls. We always begin at the hind end 
and load towards the other; we pitch generally from a windrow, and 
when a course is out the loader tells the pitcher to start on. At once 
starting we generally have hay enough to lay one course of forkfulls; 
we fill the rack a little above the raves, then lay a course the off side, 
then one the nigh side, then one in the middle, then begin the off side 
again, &c. laying as much in the middle as either side. When we 
come to pitch off we have no trouble to find where to begin at any time, 
and by having the system understood, we can pitch off each other’s 
load if necessary. WM. GOULD. 
Lorraine, Jefferson Co. July 29th, 1836. 
EXTRACTS. 
DEVELOPMENT OF VEGETABLES. 
Farther proofs of design may be collected from an examination into 
the modes in which these structures, so admirably adapted to their ob¬ 
jects, have been gradually formed. Confining our attention to vascular 
plants, in which the process of development has been studied with the 
greatest attention and success, we find that nature has pursued two 
different plans in conducting their growth.* In the greater number, 
the successive additions to the substance of the stem are made on the 
exterior side of the parts from which they proceed. This mode is 
adopted in what are called Exogenous plants. In others, the growth 
is the result of additions made internally; a plan which is followed in 
all Endogenous plants. The oak, the elm, the beech, the pine, and all 
the trees of the northern regions, belong to the first of these divisions. 
The palm tribe, such as the date, the cocoa nut tree, and indeed a large 
proportion of the trees of tropical climates, together with the sugar 
cane, the bamboo, and all gramineous and liliaceous plants, belong to 
the latter. We shall first inquire into the endogenous mode of growth, 
as being the simplest of these two kinds of vegetable development. 
A palm tree may be taken as an example as the mode of growth in 
endogenous plants. The stem of this tree is usually perfectly cylindri¬ 
cal, attains a great height, and bears on its summit a tuft of leaves. 
It is composed of an extremely dense external cylindric layer of wood; 
but the texture of the interior becomes gradually softer and more po¬ 
rous as it comes nearer to the centre; though with regard to its essen¬ 
tial character it appears to be uniform in every part, having neither 
medullary rays, nor true outward bark, nor any central pith; in all of 
which respects it differs totally from the ordinary exogenous trees. 
The first stage of its growth consists in the appearance of a circle of 
leaves, which shoot upwards from the neck of the plant, and attain, 
during the first year, a certain size. The following year, another cir¬ 
cle of leaves arises ; but they grow from the interior of the former cir¬ 
cle, which they force outwards as their vegetation advances, and as 
ligneous matter is deposited within them. Thus, each succeeding year 
brings with it a fresh crop of leaves, intermixed with ligneous or woody 
matter, which leaves, exert an outward pressure, and stretch out the 
preceding layers that enclose them; until the latter, acquiring greater 
density, no longer admit of farther distention, and remain permanently 
fixed. This happens first to the outermost layer, which is the oldest; 
then each succeeding layer becomes consolidated in its turn. As soon 
as the outer layer has become too hard to yield to the pressure from 
within, the growth of the inner layers is immediately directed upwards; 
so that they each rise in succession by distinct stages, always proceed¬ 
ing from the interior; a mode of development which has been compar¬ 
ed by De Candolle, to the drawing out of the sliding tubes of a tele¬ 
scope. The whole stem, whatever height it may attain, never increas¬ 
es its diameter after its outward layer has been consolidated. A circle 
of leaves annually sprouts from the margin of wood ; these, when they 
fall in autumn, leave on the stem certain traces of their former exist¬ 
ence, consisting of a circular impression round the stem. The age of 
* The tribe of Felicis, or ferns, the structure of which is vascular, consti¬ 
tutes an exception to this rule ; as they differ in their mode of development 
both from exogenous and endogenous plants. 
the tree may accordingly be estimated by the number of these circles, 
or knots, which appear along its stem. The successive knots which 
appear in the stems of other endogenous plants, as may be observed 
in growing corn, and also in various grasses, may be traced to a simi¬ 
lar origin. 
The structure of exogenous trees is more complicated; for, when 
fYilly grown, they are composed of two principal parts, the wood and 
the bark. The woody portion exhibits a farther division into pith, 
which occupies the centre, and consists of large vesicles, not cohering 
very closely, but forming a light and spongy texture, readily permea¬ 
ble to liquids and to air; the harder wood, which surrounds the pith, 
in concentric rings, or layers; and the softer wood, or alburnum, which 
is also disposed in concentric layers on the outside of the former. Each 
of these concentric layers of wood and alburnum may be farther dis¬ 
tinguished into an inner and outer portion; the former being of less 
density thah the latter, and consisting of a lighter cellular tissue ; 
while the outer portion is composed of the denser woody fibre, result¬ 
ing from the union of numerous vessels with a cellular envelop. The 
bark is formed by concentric layers of hortical substance, of which the 
innermost are demonstrated the liber; and the whole is surrounded by 
an outer zone of cellular tissue, termed the cellular envelop. Of this 
envelop the exterior surface is called the epidermis. 
All these concentric zones may be readily distinguished in a horizon¬ 
tal section of the stem ; which also presents a number of lines called 
medullary rays, radiating frbm the pith to the circumference. They 
are composed chiefly of large cells, extending transversely, or in the 
direction of the diameter of the tree, and composing by their union 
continuous vertical planes the whole length of the trunk. 
Every vegetable stem, and also every branch which arises from it, 
is developed from a germ, or bud, which is originally of inconceivable 
minuteness, and totally imperceptible by any optical means of which 
we have the command. As soon as it becomes visible, and its struc¬ 
ture can be distinguished, it is found to contain within itself the parts 
which are to arise from it, in miniature, and folded up in the smallest 
possible compass. The portion destined to form the stem is gradually 
expanded both in width and height, but principally the latter; so that 
it rises as it grows, during a certain period, until the fibres acquire the 
solidity and strength necessary not only for their own support, but also 
for sustaining the parts which are to be farther added. In trees this 
process generally occupies one whole season ; during which the growth 
of the first layer of wood, with its central pith, and its covering of a 
layer of bark, is free and unrestrained. On the second year, a fresh 
impulse being given to vegetation, a new growth commences from the 
upper end of the original stem, as if it were the development of a new 
bud; and ai the same time a layer of cellular tissue is formed by the 
deposition of new materials on the outside of the former wood, and be¬ 
tween it and the bark. This is followed by a second layer of wood, en¬ 
veloping the new layer of cellular tissue. 
The effect of this new growth is to compress the new layer of wood 
which had heen formed during the first year, and to impede its further 
extension in breadth. But as its fibres, consisting of vessels and cells, 
are not yet consolidated, and admit of still greater expansion as long 
as they are supplied with nourishment, their growth, which is restrain¬ 
ed latterally, is now directed upwards, and there is no farther enlarge¬ 
ment of their diameter. From the same cause, the pith cannot increase 
in size; and is even found to diminish by the pressure of the surround¬ 
ing wood. Thus, the vertical elongation of the entire stem continues 
during the whole of the second year, and the trunk becomes sufficient¬ 
ly strengthened by the addition of the second layer on its outside to 
bear this increase of its height. 
While this process is going on in the wood, corresponding changes 
take place in the bark, and a new layer is added on its inner surface, 
or that which is contiguous to the wood. This layer constitutes the 
liber. All these new depositions must of course tend to stretch the 
outer portions of the bark, which had been first formed, and which 
yield to this pressure, to a certain extent; but, becoming themselves 
consolidated by the effects of the same pressure, they acquire increas¬ 
ing rigidity; and, the same cause continuing to operate, they at length 
give way, in various places, forming those deep cracks, which are ob¬ 
servable in the bark of old trees, and which give so rugged an appear¬ 
ance to their surface. The cuticle has, long before this, peeled off, and 
has been succeeded by the consolidated layers of cortical envelop which 
form the epidermis. But the epidermis, which is continually splitting 
by the expansion of the part it encloses, itself soon decays, and is con¬ 
stantly succeeded by fresh layers, produced by the same process of 
consolidation in the subjacent cortical substance. 
During the third and each succeeding year, the same process is re¬ 
peated; new layers of cellular texture and of woody fibres are deposit¬ 
ed around those of the preceding year’s growth, and a new internal 
coating is given to the liber of the bark. The compressing power con¬ 
tinues to be exerted on the internal layers of wood, directing their 
growth vertically, while they are capable of elongation, and "can be 
