112 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
THE PELVIS. 
The pelvis is the cavity formed by the junction of the haunchbones 
with the bone of the rump. It is essential that this cavity should be 
large in the female, that she may be enabled to bring forth her young 
with less difficulty. 
When the cavity is small, the life of the mother and of her offspring 
is endangered. 
The size of the pelvis is chiefly indicated by the width of the hips, 
and the breadth of the twist, which is the space between the thighs. 
The breadth of the loins is always in proportion to that of the chest 
and pelvis. 
the head. 
The head should be small, by which the birth is much facilitated; the 
smallness affords other advantages, and generally indicates that the 
animal is of a good breed. 
Horns are useless to domestic animals, and they are often causes of 
accidents. It is not difficult to breed animals without horns. 
The breeders of horned cattle and horned sheep, sustain a loss more 
extensive than they may conceive; for if is not the horns alone, but 
also much more bone in the skulls of such animals, to support their 
horns for which the butcher pays nothing; and besides this, there is 
an additional quantity of ligament and muscle in the neck, which is 
of small value 
The skull of a ram with its horns weighed five times more than ano¬ 
ther skull which was hornless. Both these skulls were taken from 
sheep of the same age, each being four years old. The great difference 
in weight depended chiefly on the horns, for the lower jaws were near¬ 
ly equal; one weighing seven ounces, and the other six ounces and 
three-quarters, which proves that the natural size of the head was near¬ 
ly the same in both, independently of the horns, and the thickness of 
bone which supports them. 
In a horned animal the skull is extremely thick. In a hornless ani¬ 
mal, it is much thinner, especially in that part where the horns usually 
grow. 
To those who have not reflected on the subject, it may appear of lit¬ 
tle importance whether sheep and cattle have horns or no; but on a 
very moderate calculation, it will be found that the loss in farming 
stock, and also in the diminution of anmial food, is very considerable, 
fiom the production of horns and their appendages. A mode of breed¬ 
ing which would prevent the production of these, would afford a consi¬ 
derable profit in an increase of meat and wool, and other valuable 
parts. 
The length of the neck should be proportioned to the height of the 
animal, that it may collect its food with ease. 
THE MUSCLES. 
The muscles, and tendons which are their appendages, should be 
large, by which an animal is enabled to travel with greater facility. 
THE BONES. 
The strength of an animal does not depend on the size of the bones, 
but on that of the muscles. Many animals with large bones are weak 
tueir muscles being small. 
Animals that were imperfectly nourished during growth, have their 
bones disproportionately large. If such deficiency of nourishment origi 
nated from a constitutional defect, which is the most frequent cause, 
they remain weak during life. Large bones, therefore, generally indi¬ 
cate an imperfection in the organs of nutrition. 
ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF FORM. 
To attain the most approved form, two modes of breeding have been 
practised; one by the selection of individuals of the same family, call¬ 
ed breeding in-and-in: the other, by selecting males and females from 
different varieties of the same species, which is called crossing the 
breed. 
When a particular variety approaches perfection in form, breeding 
in-and-in may be the better practice; especially for those who are not 
well acquainted with the principles on which improvement depends. 
When the male is much larger than the female, the offspring is ge¬ 
nerally of an imperfect form. If the female be proportionably larger 
than the male, the offspring is of an improved form. 
For instance, if a well-formed large ram be put to ewes proportion¬ 
ably small, the lambs will not be so well-shaped as their parents; and 
if a small ram be put to large ewes, the lambs will be of an improved 
form. 
The proper method of improving the forms of animals, consists in 
selecting a well-formed female, proportionably larger than the male. 
The improvement depends on this principle, that the power of the 
female to supply her offspring with nourishment, is in proportion to her 
size, and the power of nourishing herself from the excellence of her 
constitution. 
The size of the foetus is generally in proportion to that of the male 
parent, and, therefore, when the female parent is disproportionably 
small, the quantity of nourishmentis deficient, and the offspring has all 
the disproportions of a starvling. I 
But when the female from her size and good constitution, is more 
than adequate to the nourishment of a foetus of a smaller male than her¬ 
self, the growth must be proportionably greater. 
The laiiger female has also a greater quantity of milk, and her off¬ 
spring is more abundantly supplied with nourishment after birth. 
To produce the best formed animals, abundant nourishment is neces¬ 
sary, from the earliest period of its existence until its growth is entire. 
It has been observed in the beginning of the paper, that the power to 
prepare the greatest quantity of nourishment from a given quantity of 
food, depends principally on the magnitude of the lungs to which the 
organs of digestion are subservient. 
To obtain animals with large lungs, crossing is the most expeditious, 
because well formed females may be selected from a variety of a large 
size, to be put to a well formed male of a variety that is rather smaller. 
By such a method of crossing, the lungs and heart become propor¬ 
tionably larger, in consequence of a peculiarity in the circulation of the 
foetus, which causes a larger proportion of the blood under such circum 
stances, to be distributed to the lungs, than to the other parts of the 
body, and as the shape and size of the chest, depend on that of the 
lungs, hence arises the remarkably large chest which is produced by 
crossing with females that are larger than the males. 
The practice according to this principle of improvement, however, 
ought to be limited ; for it may be carried to such an extent, that the 
bulk of the body might be so disproportioned to the size of the limbs, 
as to prevent the animals from moving with sufficient facility.- 
In animals where activity is required, this practice should not be ex¬ 
tended so far as in those which are intended for the food of man. 
ON THE CHARACTER OF ANIMALS. 
By character in animals is here meant, those external appearances 
by which the varieties of the same species are distinguished. The cha¬ 
racters of both parents are observed in their offspring, but that of the 
male most frequently predominates. This may be illustrated in the 
breeding of horned animals, among which there aie many varieties of 
sheep, and some of cattle, which are horned. 
If a hornless ram be put to a horned ewe, almost all the lambs will 
be hornless, partaking of the character of the male, more than of the 
female parent. 
In some counties, as Norfolk, Wilkshire and Dorsetshire, most of the 
sheep have horns. In Norfolk, the horns maybe got rid of by crossing 
with Ryland rams, which would also improve the form of the chest and 
the quantity of the wool. 
In Wilkshire and Dorsetshire, the same improvement might be made 
by crossing the sheep with Southdown rams. 
An offspring without horns might be obtained from the Devon cattle, 
by crossing with the hornless bulls of the Galloway breed. This would, 
also improve the form of the chest, which the Devons are often defi¬ 
cient in. 
EXAMPLES OF THE GOOD EFFECTS OF CROSSING THE BREED. 
The great improvement of the breed of horses in England, arose from 
crosses with the diminutive stallions, Barbs and Arabians; and the in¬ 
troduction of Flanders mares into this country, was the source of im¬ 
provements in the breed of cart horses. 
The form of swine has also been greatly improved by crossing with 
the small Chinese boar. 
EXAMPLES OF THE BAD EFFECTS OF CROSSING THE BREED. 
When it became the fashion in London, to drive large bay horses, 
the farmers in Yorkshire, put their mares to much larger stallions than 
usual, and thus did infinite mischief to their breed, by producing a race 
of small chested, long legged, large headed, worthless animals. 
A similar project was adopted in Normandy, to enlarge the breed of 
horses there, by the use of stallions from Holstein; and in consequence, 
the best breed of horses in France would have been spoiled, had not 
the farmers discovered their mistake in time, by -observing the off¬ 
spring much inferior in form to that of the native stallions. 
Some graziers in the Isle of Shepley, conceived that they could im¬ 
prove their-sheep by large Lincolnshire rams, the produce of which 
was, however, much inferior in the shape of the carcass, and the qua¬ 
lity of the wool, and their flocks were greatly injured by this attempt 
to improve them. 
Attempts to improve the native animals of a country, and by any 
plan of crossing, should be made with the greatest caution; for by a 
mistaken practice, extensively pursued, irreparable mischief may be 
done. 
In any country where a particular race of animals has continued for 
centuries, it may be presumed that their constitution is adapted to the 
food and climate. 
The pliancy of the animal economy is such, as that an animal will 
gradually accommodate itself to very great vicissitudes in climate and 
alterations in food, and by degrees undergo great changes in constitu¬ 
tion ; but these changes can be effected only by degrees, and may of¬ 
ten require a great number of successive generations for their accom¬ 
plishment. 
