CLEISTOGAMOUS FLOWERS. 
79 
tions are. If it is agreed that the cleistogamous flowers are 
merely undeveloped forms, then there is no need to distinguish 
between true cleistogamy and “ pseudocleistogamy,” or that in 
which the flowers are in all respects like the chasmogamous ones, 
except for the failure to open. In these the development stops 
in the last stages before the opening of the corolla, while in the 
“ real ” cleistogamous it stops earlier in its course. All interme¬ 
diate forms have been found, and in the same species (e. gi, the 
touch-me-not) there may often be found all degrees of the chas¬ 
mogamous, the cleistogamous and the pseudocleistogamous grow¬ 
ing on the same plant. The distinction is therefore worthless, 
thinks Goebel, and it would be more to the point to speak of 
arrested development and arrested anthesis, or unfolding, of cleis¬ 
togamous flowers, or of habitual cleistogamy (that which occurs 
regularly without apparent regard to external conditions), and 
induced cleistogamy (which may be brought about at various 
stages in the life of the plant by modifications of the environ¬ 
ment). But even such distinctions are not fundamental. 
Like Darwin, Goebel divides the appearance of cleistogamy into 
three cases: 
1. Where the cleistogamous flowers precede the chasmogamous. 
2. Where the cleistogamous follow the chasmogamous. 
3. Where the two forms occur at the same time. 
The author then discusses typical species in each group, show¬ 
ing that in certain species the production of cleistogamous flowers 
occurs regularly according to external conditions, varying prin¬ 
cipally with reference to seasonal changes in moisture, light and 
soil- or air-temperature. 
He next considers the structural relations in several species, 
as Lamium amplexicaule (dead-nettle), the yellow balsam, Spec- 
ularia perfoliata, Oxalis acetosella, Cardamine chenopodifolia 
(bitter cress), and several species of Viola, to show that the 
organs of the cleistogamous flowers are reduced structures result¬ 
ing from an arrest in growth or in development. The rudiments 
of all the organs found in the chasmogamous flowers of any 
species are also found in the cleistogamous flowers; but the 
development of all does not proceed as far in the latter as in the 
