The Teaching of Elementary Botany 201 
possible to determine in detail the response of the student to the 
content and methods of the course from the two different view¬ 
points, that of the teacher and of the student. Even better, they 
permit an analysis of the learning process in the case of each student, 
and hence afford the only basis for giving it complete and symmetric 
development. The student’s part in measuring results is as great as 
that of the teacher, and constitutes an indispensable part of his 
training. The insight and objectivity that he thus develops with 
respect to his own deserts and accomplishment are beyond the 
belief of one who has taught only in the traditional way. 
The measurements employed were first developed twenty years 
ago, before the appearance of the intelligence tests, and consequently 
differ from the latter in several respects. The most important of 
these is that they are analytical, and deal directly with what are 
conceived to be the essential steps in the learning process. As a 
consequence they are applicable to all subjects when these are taught 
by the process-inquiry method. In addition they are based upon 
the assumption that memorizing is not the sole or even the para¬ 
mount objective in teaching, but that it is merely an intrinsic step 
in the learning process. Perhaps a unique feature in their application 
lies in the fact that they are used to measure progress rather than 
to determine capacity once for all. This is in conformity with the 
working hypothesis that all normal minds are capable of develop¬ 
ment to a degree altogether unexpected, when subjected to the 
proper stimuli and environment. For purposes of study and measure¬ 
ment the learning process is divided into six steps or sub-processes, 
termed observing, experimenting, remembering, reasoning, relating 
and applying. These permit of further analysis, especially in psycho¬ 
logical terms, such as perception, attention, etc., but the sub¬ 
processes given were chosen because they are readily intelligible and 
conform to the learning process of the race as well as the research 
method of the scientist. It is obvious that learning as ordinarily 
understood may begin or end with almost any one of these, though 
remembering regularly obscures all the others. On the other hand, 
real learning, by which is meant complete learning, must begin with 
observation and end with application. In short, learning that is not 
applied to life, in terms of service, efficiency, comfort, or enjoyment 
is regarded as spurious. 
The limits of a paper do not permit an adequate treatment of 
the measurement of the various sub-processes, but this may be 
exemplified in the case of observation. The students set themselves 
