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Frederic E. Clements 
the task of observing independently every possible point in an 
object, such as a flower or a shoot, or every step in a process such as 
pollination oi a tropism. The group then determines the total number 
of points that should be observed, and this constitutes the norm in 
relation to which the performance of each student is reckoned, as a 
ratio or percentage. A similar object or process is employed to 
determine the time element, but this is treated as an indicator rather 
than an essential part of the norm, owing to the fact that, while 
remembering can be speeded up, accuracy and thoroughness are 
more important than rapidity in the other processes. Improvement 
in the power to observe is measured in the same manner by means 
of a graduated series of objects, such as a cyme, a composite head 
and a grass spikelet. This makes it possible to establish a norm for 
rate of improvement, and to measure the performance of each 
student against this as well as his original score. The relation to the 
latter is regarded as furnishing the best evidence of the student’s 
progress, while the relation to the improvement norm of the group 
is taken as indicating the standard to be attained. Experimenting 
involves both observing and reasoning, and apart from these is 
measured in terms of the proper steps in organizing and executing 
an experiment. Remembering is best measured by written sum¬ 
maries of the knowledge to be put to use or tested by a project, 
though in terms of permanence it is also measured by the unannounced 
test in any field desired. Reasoning is more difficult to express in a 
norm, but this is successfully done by taking into account the steps 
necessary to marshal and contrast the evidence and to express it in 
a proper conclusion. Relating involves observing, remembering and 
reasoning, and has been most successfully measured in connection 
with the efficiency of flowers in pollination or with their relationship. 
The actual test is conducted by giving each student several flowers 
representing as many orders, which are to be compared as to structure 
and then arranged in a grouping that will most nearly express rela¬ 
tionship based upon degree of similarity. This can be extended to 
families and genera, and with little modification to other organs, as 
well as to processes. Applying is the most difficult sub-process to 
measure in quantitative terms, as the transfer of conclusion, principle 
or method is rather a qualitative matter which often does not permit 
of degrees of success. Most difficult of all is the measurement of 
success in applying results to other courses and fields, and to every¬ 
day life, but no adequate investigation of this is possible until 
departments are willing to relinquish the teaching of their respective 
