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war, but helped by Britain and the Netherlands, Carl 
successfully compelled the Danes to make peace at Travendal 
in 1700. He defeated the Russians at Narva, took Curland 
from the Poles, and obliged the Elector Augustus of Saxony 
to sign the peace of Altranstadt. Meanwhile Tsar Peter 
(Peter the Great) had, on the other hand, gained Kexholm, 
Ingermanland, and Esthonia. Instead of a direct attempt 
to regain these provinces, Carl, tempted by a promise of help 
from Mazeppa, a Cossack chief, marched to the Ukraine, 
but sustained a signal defeat at Poltava in 1709, largely due 
to the fact that the Swedish army had expended all its 
ammunition, and had only cold steel for its defence. 
Though wounded, Carl escaped into Turkey and resided at 
Bender, while Denmark and Saxony again declared war 
against Sweden, and the Tsar occupied Finland. Swedish 
resources being now exhausted, the nobility began to plot 
against their king. Carl escaped from Turkey, and return¬ 
ing to Sweden in 1715, found that Britain, Hanover and 
Prussia had also declared war against him. Having with 
great difficulty raised some money, Carl invaded Norway 
and besieged Fredrikshald, midway between Christiania and 
Gothenburg, but was shot in the trenches, dying at the early 
age of thirty-six. With his death absolutism came to an 
end, and the “ Era of Liberty ” succeeded, lasting from 
1719 to 1772. 
Carl XII. was succeeded by his sister, Ulrika Eleanora, 
who, shortly afterwards, abdicated in favour of her husband, 
the Crown Prince of Cassel, who ascended the throne as 
Fredrik I., a new constitution being framed in 1720. In the 
course of two years, peace being concluded with the 
surrounding nations, a period of repose followed; a new 
code of laws was drawn up in 1734, and efforts were made to 
revive commerce. Meanwhile the people became divided 
into two parties, namely the “ Hats,” who, under Counts 
Gyllenborg and Tessin, advocated an alliance with France 
and war with Russia, and the “ Caps,” who preferred to 
form an alliance with Britain and keep France at a distance. 
In 1741, the “ Hats ” were supreme in power, and after the 
death in 1751 of Fredrik I., who had no issue, they plunged 
in 1757 into the Seven Years’ War, with ruinous results 
to themselves, and by 1760, impeachment was imminent. 
Adolf Fredrik had succeeded Fredrik I. as King, his queen 
being the masterful Lovisa Ulrika, sister of Frederick the 
Great. With these personages Linne was in constant 
communication, as both King and Queen were amassing 
rich collections of natural history, and often invoked the 
