386 
RUSH SHIPPEN HUIDEKOPER. 
In addition to the schools of Warsaw and Petersburgh, in 
Russia, others have been founded in Cracow, Dorpat, in Livonia 
and in the Kassan; these schools are attached to the medical and 
surgical faculties and require five years study. The course is 
most thorough and from each graduating class are selected, by 
competitive examination, two students, who under pay and at the 
expense of the government, are sent to the other schools of 
Europe to perfect themselves in special branches ; on their return 
they pass an examination, which, if satisfactory, attaches them to 
the faculty, which they enter when a vacancy occurs. The pro¬ 
fessional and military standing of veterinary surgeons in Russia 
is probably the highest rank attained in any country. In Italy 
the graduates rank as doctors, and the diploma is a university 
degree. In Austria the faculty must possess both the veterinary 
diploma and that of doctor of medicine. In France and Ger¬ 
many the faculties are recruited from among veterinary surgeons, 
but while the military veterinary surgeons enter as officers in 
France, they only attain that grade in Germany on becoming 
senior veterinary surgeon of a regiment, but it must be remem¬ 
bered that military surgeons in Prussia were non-commissioned 
officers in 1840. In Holland the faculty was composed entirely 
of medical men until 1851, when veterinary surgeons were ad¬ 
mitted as teachers. In England the position of a veterinary sur¬ 
geon has much improved in recent years; while the military vet¬ 
erinarian became an officer in the early part of the century, the 
position of the practitioner kept steadily in the background of the 
medical man, who in turn remained an apothecary until the med¬ 
ical profession was entered by men with titles to their names. It 
has been mainly due to the efforts of Mr. Fleming, the Chief of 
the Veterinary Department of the army, that a great improve¬ 
ment has taken place in the profession, and the last ostracism 
was removed in June, 1883, when he obtained for the military 
veterinary surgeon the entree to Court. 
The course of study in the European schools, while every 
where thorough, varies considerably in its details. It is shortest in 
England, where three partial years only are demanded. These are 
devoted essentially to making practitioners, and during the long 
