438 
Mr. Douglas Carruthers on the 
across the steppes. Spring comes suddenly, and during 
this season most of the rain falls; in summer the climate is 
hot, but dry and invigorating. 
The yearly rainfall varies from 97T mm. near the Sea of 
Aral to 337*7 mm. at Samarkand. On the high plateaux the 
rainfall is again very small : the Pamirs have a yearly fall 
less than that of the Aral basin. 
The altitude varies from 200 feet above the sea-level on 
the Bokharan Steppe to 20,000 feet on the ranges of 
Eastern Bokhara. But the life-zone ends at about 15,000 
feet, which is the height of the average snow-line. 
As regards physical features, on the low country we 
have an area of sand-dunes of the most utter desolation 
where no life exists, as well as an area of tamarisk and 
scrub - covered sand-hills and tamarisk-swamp. Above 
this is the hard steppe which runs from 1 500 feet up to 
4,000 feet. These high steppes are a peculiarity of Asiatic 
scenery. 
The cultivated area is confined to a district between 200 
feet and 3,000 feet. Of course cultivation does exist at a 
higher altitude ; orchards are to be seen high up the moun¬ 
tain valleys, and barley is grown as high as 8,000 feet, but 
the main area, where the large towns are situated and the 
vast proportion of produce is raised, lies at about 2,000 feet, 
where the rivers leave the mountains and render irrigation 
possible. This region includes practically the whole of the 
tree-area, there being no true forests. 
The remaining half of the region is composed of moun¬ 
tain-ranges, very difficult of access. Out of the Bokharan 
steppes rise the immense ranges of Hissar and Turkestan, 
which border the Zarafschan on the north and south. The 
mountains might be divided into three areas—the low, rocky, 
barren, desert-ranges from 2,000 feet to 6,000 feet, the bush- 
clad or juniper forest area from 7,000 to 9,500 feet, and lastly 
the alpine region above 10,000 feet, varying up to 15,000 feet 
according to the snow-line. The juniper forest is confined to 
the area between 7,500 feet and 9,500 feet, and holds perhaps 
the most interesting fauna, the birds being mostly peculiar to 
