408 
C. J. Sundevall on the Wings of Birds. 
at its base, in the form of a tubercle, which, in living or 
recently shot birds, often seems to conceal the scapular 
tubercle. Hence if we take the measurement from it we get 
only the actual length of the os humeri , but not the length 
from the scapular tubercle. The Coccyges show many con¬ 
siderable differences in this respect, and partly approach the 
Song-birds, and partly the Gallinse and Raptores. In the other 
orders named the same edge is often directed upwards or 
pressed backwards, as in Columba. This, therefore, causes 
the base of the humerus not to stand out so broadly and not 
to conceal the true scapular tubercle in fresh birds; but 
the latter is always perceptible from without, immediately 
in front of the shoulder-joint. 
The length of the cubitus must also be particularly men¬ 
tioned. The birds wdiich feed their young and possess 
available posterior toes ( Aves altrices : “ Nesthocker,” Oken ; 
Oscines, Coccyges, Accipitres) have the cubitus longer than 
the humerus, so that its anterior extremity (with the carpus) 
stands even with, or somewhat in front of, the shoulder and 
the breast. In the other birds, however, which have a raised 
pollex &c. (Aves preecoces : “ Nestfhichter,” Oken; Gallinse, 
Grallte, Anseres), it is in general shorter, even shorter than 
the humerus itself. This condition, however, is modified in 
this way : that in all birds which fly strongly, and especially 
in all which have long hand-feathers, the cubitus is longer, 
in order to furnish space for the thicker or more numerous 
‘pennce cubitales, and through this thd carpus projects further 
in front of the breast. The contrary occurs in the bad fliers. 
We see, therefore, in the lowest Water-birds, the Pygo- 
podes, as also in Mergus , that the cubitus is much shorter 
than the humerus, and nearly equally so in the Fuligulce; it 
is somewhat shorter than the humerus in Anas and in Cygnus 
gibbus , equal to it in Cygnus musicus and Anser cinereus ; and 
somewhat projecting in the smaller species of the genus 
Anser , although the carpus still stands behind the shoulder- 
tubercle. The same in Carbo, Procellaria, Diomedea. But 
in Sterna and Larus the carpus always stands somewhat in 
front of the shoulder-tubercle. 
