49 
No. XXIX.—COVENANTS, OATHS, ORDEALS. 
By E. B. TYLOR, Esq., F.R.S, 
Solemn covenants are made by all nations; oaths and ordeals 
are rare among the lower tribes, and worthy of careful study 
when they occur. The question of principle usually involved 
in them is this, whether a personal spirit or deity is called on 
to witness the covenant or decide the truth, punishing the of¬ 
fender, or whether the operation is merely symbolical. The 
ceremonies and formulas used should therefore be carefully de¬ 
scribed. 
1. What forms of covenant are used, as in settling tribe 
rights, making peace, &c. ? 2. Do they appeal to any personal 
being, as to Heaven or Sun, to punish breach of faith ? 3. Is 
any thing of the nature of an oath taken by an accuser, witness, 
&c. ? 4. If so, is it accompanied by any symbolic form, such 
as swearing on a bear’s head or sitting over a pit, with the 
idea that the breaker of covenant will be killed by a bear or fall 
into a pit ? 5. Is the blood of the parties mixed as a sign of 
covenant, each party drinking it ? 6. Is eating and drinking- 
together a form of covenant ? and does it confirm friendship P 
7. How is this supposed to act ? is a deity considered to execute 
the punishment, or does it come by a magical connexion ? 
8. Does any thing of the nature of an oath enter into th9 
marriage ceremony? 9. Do sorcerers or priests superintend 
covenants or oaths ? and is their breaking looked on as a civil or 
a religious offence ? 
10. Are any ordeals in use, such as plunging into water, 
passing through fire, drinking poison, &c. ? 11. May they be 
done by deputy ? 12. Are they religious acts, as may be known 
by their depending for their efficacy on deities and being admi¬ 
nistered by priests ? 13. Is the truth ascertained by this means 
when the accused denies or there is conflict of testimony ? 14. 
Does the ordeal act symbolically, as when a weapon is touched 
with the idea that such a weapon will slay the guilty ? 15. 
Does it act directly, as when food is taken into the mouth, with 
the idea that it will choke the guilty ? 16. Are ordeals frau¬ 
dulently used by chiefs and priests, so as to save their friends 
and ruin their enemies p 
E 
/ 
