149 
virtues ? 33. How are such warlike virtues accounted of in 
comparison with the milder virtues of kindness, generosity, 
&c. ? 34. Can offences against public feeling be atoned for 
by courageous acts ? 
E. B. T. 
No. XXXI11 .—COVENANTS, OATHS, 
ORDEALS. 
Solemn covenants are made by all nations ; oaths and 
ordeals are rare among the lower tribes, and worthy of careful 
study when they occur. The question of principle usually 
involved in them is this, whether a personal spirit or deity is 
called on to witness the covenant or decide the truth, punish¬ 
ing the offender, or whether the operation is merely sym¬ 
bolical. The ceremonies and formulas used should therefore 
be carefully described. 
1. What forms of covenant are used, as in settling tribe- 
rights, making peace, &c. ? 2. Do they appeal to any personal 
being, as to Heaven or Sun, to punish breach of faith ? 3. Is 
anything of the nature of an oath taken by an accuser, 
witness, &c. ? 4. If so, .is it accompanied by any symbolic 
form, such as swearing on a bear’s head or sitting over a pit, 
with the idea that the breaker of covenant will be killed by a 
bear or fall into a pit ? 5. Is the blood of the parties mixed 
as a sign of covenant, each party drinking it ? 6. Is eating 
and drinking together of any particular food a form of cove¬ 
nant ? and does it confirm friendship ? 7. How is this 
supposed to act ? is a deity considered to execute the punish¬ 
ment, or does it come by a magical connexion ? 8. Does any¬ 
thing of the nature of an oath enter into the marriage cere¬ 
mony ? 9. Do sorcerers or priests superintend covenants or 
oaths ? and is their breaking looked on as a civil or a religious 
offence ? ga. Is a simple promise regarded as binding ? 
10. Are any ordeals in use, such as plunging into water, 
