788 
THE GARDENING WORLD. 
July 20, 1889. 
necessary part of the other, No amount of labour in 
■winter can compensate for any neglect in this respect 
in spring and summer, and yet this part of the work is 
so -generally either not done at all, or at least sadly 
scamped over. 
I am well aware that spring and summer are seasons 
of the year when there is a great demand upon the 
gardener in the labour item, and in most cases far 
exceeding the resources at his disposal. Employers of 
labour do not often understand this, or are, perhaps, 
indisposed to do so ; or in these days of agricultural 
depression many find it necessary to curtail their 
expenses. This is unfortunate for the gardener and 
unfortunate for the fruit trees under his charge, which 
naturally suffer in consequence, and often are entirely 
ruined for want of attention at this season of the year ; 
this accounts for the seeming neglect in many instances. 
There are many men of great experience and superior 
ability who find themselves very heavily handicapped 
in this manner, who quite understand what should be 
done, but are unable to do it. But it is so seldom we 
see such trained trees as Apples and Pears cleverly and 
skilfully summer pruned and disbudded that many 
others have grown old in the profession and followed 
in the ways of their predecessors without perhaps 
giving this subject a thought, or even considering dis¬ 
budding in spring as necessary to the well-being of the 
trees. They, probably, having never seen it well done, 
have simply given the trees what is called the summer 
pruning, going over them as usual during the latter 
end of summer by shortening the growing shoots, and 
then considering the work finished. This is not 
enough. This sort of summer pruning will not do if 
previous disbudding has been neglected. 
How often do we see espaliers, pyramids, and even 
wall trees of Apples, Pears, Plums, or Cherries, matted 
all over with stubby clusters of short spurs much too 
thick for scientific and successful culture, which, had 
they been properly treated, would not have been the 
case. Now we have to consider the objects for which 
trained trees are pruned. First, we must have due 
regard for the proper symmetry of the tree ; secondly, 
the proper regulation of its branches, and formation of 
fruiting buds or spurs ; and thirdly, the production of 
fruit of superior size and excellence. The manner in 
which trees are trained, which in a measure governs 
the pruning, depends much upon taste and upon the 
fruiting habits of the tree—whether the fruit is produced 
upon buds of the previous year’s formation, as in the 
case of the Peach and Nectarine, or on spurs of two, 
three, four, or more years’ growth, as is principally the 
case with Apples, Pears, Plums, and Cherries, the 
primary object being to secure a sufficient quantity of 
bearing wood in all parts of the tree. In the first 
instance disbudding is practised with very little 
stopping of branches, as it is necessary to train in as 
much as possible of the young wood to all parts of the 
tree, and stopping would induce the formation of spurs 
which is not required. This method is so well under¬ 
stood, and so universally practised, the Peach and 
Nectarine being generally so well done, that it is 
scarcely necessary to say more about it now, as it is 
chiefly with the Apple, Pear, &e., that I wish to deal. 
The fruit of these being produced as before men¬ 
tioned, chiefly on spurs of two, three, four, or more years’ 
growth, much discretion should be exercised in dis¬ 
budding and stopping, commencing as early as possible 
in the spring, as soon as the character of the bud begins 
to develop itself. This is the time when the greatest 
attention and care are required if we wish to favour 
the production of healthy strong bearing wood. All 
gross and superfluous branches should be removed 
as soon as they appear, as these would only rob the 
more fruitful portions of the tree of their sap, and the 
rest thinned out to their proper distances. It is quite 
evident that those which remain will make a more 
substantial growth by having a greater share of the 
sap, as the immediate result of pruning is to cause a 
greater flow of sap to those buds and branches which 
are left. Disbudding should be done at intervals, a 
little at a time, severe pruning causing a check in the 
root action, which would be injurious. Sufficient space 
should be allowed for the full development of the 
leaves, exposing them as much as possible to the sun 
and air, which are necessary for the elaboration of 
the sap. 
Spring disbudding is, I consider, by far the most 
important pruning operation (if I may so call it) of 
the year ; if properly done, and a clever selection of 
the buds is made, it prevents the foliage from becoming 
too thickly crowded, and the leaves then properly 
perform their functions. One portion of the tree 
naturally depends upon another, and if the action of 
the leaves is deficient the whole tree suffers, while, if 
the branches are allowed to become too thick, they 
overshadow those beneath them, and the consequence 
is a superabundance of leaves and a deficiency in fruit¬ 
bearing qualification. By proper and progressive dis¬ 
budding we secure a well-developed formation of the 
leaves, branches, fruit, and leaf-buds, which means a 
longer duration of the fruiting age of the tree, and the 
general superiority of the fruit. The mode of shortening 
the young branches in summer very much depends 
upon the manner in which the tree is trained. In the 
case of wall trees and espaliers, after the disbudding is 
practically finished, it is best to allow the remaining 
shoots to complete their growth, which will be towards 
the end of July or beginning of August, when they 
should be shortened back to within 4 ins. or 5 ins. of 
the main branch. 
The time of summer pruning should be regulated 
according to the season. A hot dry June or July, 
followed by an abundance of rain in August will often 
induce the trees to make fresh growth, and a later 
stopping would be necessary, or it would otherwise 
induce those buds to burst which we would wish to 
remain dormant; but if, on the contrary, an average 
amount of rain has fallen during the summer, it can be 
taken in hand earlier. Some years ago there was much 
controversy as to the most scientific method of summer 
pruning—whether to make a clean cut with the knife, 
or simply to snap off the branches between the knife 
and the thumb. It does not seem to me to matter 
much which way it is done, only I think snapping them 
off is the easiest and quickest method, if not too large. 
Leading shoots of these trees should not be cut back 
until winter. "Where the tree is very weak, it would 
be better not to shorten back the summer growth, but 
to let it remain until the winter pruning, in order to 
strengthen the tree. Many prefer to stop the leading 
branches on pyramidal or bush-trained trees in summer 
when about a few inches long, and allow them to make 
a second growth ; this induces young subjects to come 
more quickly into bearing, which is a great object 
with this kind of tree. 
Standards in orchards are allowed, as a rule, to grow 
very much as they like, with merely a little thinning 
of the branches in winter when too thick, or to open 
up the centre to the light ; but if a few of the young 
shoots are rubbed off from time to time when necessary, 
the trees will probably be of little trouble afterwards, 
and this will be much better than cutting out the 
branches in winter when the trees are older, as pruning 
large kinds with the saw is often very injurious to 
them, and is much better left alone where it can 
possibly be avoided .—Alfred Gaut. 
-- 
PERFUME FLOWERS. 
The sources of odours in flowers can usually be traced 
to the presence of fragrant volatile oils. In some, 
these are imprisoned in certain close vessels ; in others, 
they are generally diffused throughout the petals. 
Upon the structure of the flower, in this particular, 
depends the method that must be used in separating 
the odours. This volatile oil, once developed in the 
flower, remains there until liberated by some agency, 
either natural or artificial. The agencies employed by 
nature are heat and light, as applied by the rays of 
the sun ; these penetrating the envelope, the oil is 
volatilized and the flower gradually emits a subtle 
effluvia, varying in degree with the amount of oil, its 
pungency, and the intensity of the heat and light, 
until the fragrant principle is exhausted. 
A method approximating to nature could be easily 
applied, and the odours liberated by means of artificial 
light and heat; but instead of liberating, we must 
really confine them ; should they once elude us, they 
are so incorporeal that we could not again secure them. 
There are exceptions to this rule of emitting odours 
under the influence of sunshine, as in the case of certain 
flowers which receive their specific names from the 
quality of giving out their fragrance only at night, and 
the Cereus grandiflorus, which emits its odours at 
intervals, but the rule is sufficiently general to include 
all recognised perfume flowers. 
Therefore, to secure the odours, the flowers must be 
gathered just when there is the highest development 
of fragrant oil, and before Nature begins in her own 
way to claim tribute of their incense. The true attar, 
or otto, of Roses, the highest type of fragrance, is 
made from the petals of full-blown Roses, gathered at 
daybreak, before the sun has touched them. As they 
are plunged at once into water, the fact that the petals 
may be wet with dew is not material; for manipulated 
by regular processes, the flowers must be sufficiently 
dry to permit free handling : therefore they are not 
gathered until the dew is off, but as soon thereafter as 
possible. This readiness of nature to forestall the per¬ 
fumer is a factor of importance in determining the 
relative values of the flora of northern and southern 
latitudes for the perfumers’ uses. All who have known 
the abundant and magnificent flora of the tropics will 
recall the air heavy with fragrance. The same pro¬ 
fusion of floral riches in the cooler and rarer climate of 
a more northern latitude, would not have been so 
intoxicating. The heavy, super-heated air causes the 
fragrance to exude from the flowers so that volatile oils 
are speedily exhausted, and their odours dissipated 
upon the atmosphere. The odours thus emitted are a 
direct loss to the commercial value of the flower pro¬ 
duct. Thus we see why they must be gathered as 
soon as fully developed, and at once manipulated for 
the artificial separation of the odours. 
The fact that the perfume-flower growers are found 
mainly so far south (about 30° north) is not because 
the flowers grown there have peculiar virtue, but 
because the equable temperature and length of season 
are favourable to the business of growing flowers. 
The various flowers and plants which produce per¬ 
fumes. or whose product enters into their manufacture 
to some degree, have been divided by an expert into 
ten different groups, only a few of which, it will be 
seen, come within the province of the perfume-flower 
grower. The groups are as follows:— 
1. —Petals of flowers, as Rose, Tiolet, Jessamine, 
Orange-flower, Tuberose, and many a score besides. 
2. —Herbs, as Lavender, Rosemary, Thyme, Sweet 
Marjoram, Peppermint, and others. 
3. —Leaves of trees and plants, such as the Lemon 
Yerbena, bitter Orange, etc. 
4. —The skin of fruits, like the Lemon, Orange, 
Lime, and Bergamot. 
5. —Spices : as Cinnamon, Cloves, Mace, and Nut¬ 
meg. 
6 . —"Woods : as Sandal-wood, Cedar, Rose-wood, and 
the bark of roots, like Sassafras and Sarsaparilla. 
7. —Roots : as Orris-root and Yittivert. 
8 . —Seeds : as Anise-seed, Caraway and Celery. 
9. —Resins and Gums : as Balsam of Peru, and Tolu, 
Myrrh, Benzoin, Camphor, and other gums. 
10. —Fruits and Nuts : as Yanilla, Bitter Almonds, 
and Tonquin Beans. 
It is obvious that the separation of the essential 
principle of perfume from so wide a range of material 
will require various processes. While some growers 
and manufacturers have methods peculiar to them¬ 
selves, which they esteem as trade secrets, there are, 
speaking generally, four main operations by which they 
may be prepared: (1) expression, (2) distillation, (3) 
maceration, (4) absorption or enfleurage. 
The first of these methods is only used for obtaining 
the essential oils from the skin or rind of fruits— 
Lemons, Oranges, &c. The rinds are packed into a 
cloth bag and submitted to powerful pressure (hydro¬ 
static or its equivalent to obtain the full result) ; the 
oil which exudes is contaminated by a watery extract, 
but the fluids separate readily when being left to 
repose in the vessels. 
Distillation is applied (1) to the entire group of 
herbs ; and the extensive nature of this branch of the 
manufacture may be j udged from the fact, that in some 
of the counties of England, where herbs are largely 
grown, a ton of them is often distilled at a single 
operation—(2) for obtaining essences, such as the 
essence of Roses, essence of Neroli (from Orange flowers) 
and Orange-flower water ; and (3) for the final process 
of obtaining the volatile oil from certain flowers 
which have no peculiar vessels for its imprison¬ 
ment, but in which it is generally diffused throughout 
the petals. For these a preparatory process is 
necessary ; alternate layers are formed of fresh 
flowers and thin cotton fleece, or modern cloth 
wadding, previously soaked in a pure inodorous oil. 
M. Piesse recommends the Oil of Belin, Jamaica, a 
perfectly inodorous fat oil, as best for this purpose. A 
mixture of lard and beef suet, and the best Olive oil 
are also used. Whenever the flowers have given out 
all their volatile oil—the fixed oil upon the fibrous 
matter—they are replaced by fresh flowers in succession, 
until the fat oil has become thoroughly impregnated 
with their fragrance. 
The process of distillation is the same in either case. 
The plant, or the saturated fibrous material, is intro¬ 
duced. into a still, water poured upon it, and heat being 
applied, the oil is volatilized by aid of the watery 
vapour, at the temperature of 212° Fah. When the 
mingled vapours of the oil and water are condensed into 
