April 8, 1893. 
THE GARDENING WORLD. 
497 
HORTICULTURAL EXAMINATIONS. 
I trust that the importance of the subject may be 
my excuse for troubling you. Our society, in com¬ 
pliance with numerous requests from County Coun¬ 
cils, directors of technical institutes, lecturers, and 
others, is going to hold an examination in the 
elementary principles and in the practice of horti¬ 
culture. The date fixed for the examination is 
Thursday, May 4, Being anxious that everyone in 
the United Kingdom who desires to sit for such 
exam, may have the opportunity of so doing with¬ 
out unreasonable difficulty, vve are prepared to in¬ 
stitute such exam, in any village or town in the 
kingdom, where any magistrate, clergymen, school¬ 
master, or any responsible person accustomed to 
the conduct of examinations, will undertake to act 
as our representative and see that our rules are 
strictly observed, and that no copying or consult¬ 
ing of books, &c., takes place. Anyone, therefore, 
wishing to sit for such exam, can do so close to 
his own home if he will by the end of the first 
week in April put me in communication with any 
such responsible person who is willing to act as 
our supervisor of the exam. Obviously we must 
leave this part of the work to the candidates them¬ 
selves, as we cannot know the names of suitable 
and willing persons in every village and town in the 
country. 
Three scholarships of ^26 a year tenable for two 
years are offered in connection with the examina¬ 
tion, and I am already in correspondence with a 
very large number of persons in all parts of the 
country with reference to it. 
A fee of 3s., payable in advance, will be charged 
to all persons entering for the exam., and all 
letters on the subject requiring an answer should 
contain a stamped and directed envelope. I need 
hardly say that the fee of 3s. will not nearly cover 
the necessary expense of the exam., which will, 
therefore, entail considerable loss on the society’s 
general funds, but the council are of opinion that 
by making the fee as low as possible they are pro¬ 
moting the best interests of horticulture, and they 
trust that their action will commend itself to all 
lovers of gardens.— W. Wilks, Sec. R.H.S. 
P.S.—-The entrance fee should in all cases be 
sent to me before the date of examination. 
-- 
PAST AND PRESENT—A REVIEW.* 
In offering some remarks upon a few of the more 
popular and useful flowers, fruits, and vegetables 
that are more or less extensively grown in gardens 
and orchards, my aim shall be to point out their 
relative antiquity and the care and trouble that has 
been expended upon them to bring them to their 
present state of perfection, as well as to notice some 
of the more dominant facts relating to their past and 
present culture and future prospects from a popular 
point of view. 
Apples. 
History often repeats itself, and in view of the recent 
demonstration in the gardens at Chiswick as to the 
method of drying fruits for their preservation with 
the new machine, it may be interesting to note 
that the ancient inhabitants of Europe had a method 
of drying fruits in the Stone Period—an age so 
remote that no approximate date can be given in 
figures, as the following extract relating to the 
discoveries in the lake villages in Switzerland from 
“ Prehistoric Times,"by Sirjohn Lubbock, will show: 
" Carbonised Apples and Pears have been found at 
Wangen, sometimes whole, sometimes cut in two, or 
more rarely into four pieces, and evidently dried and 
put aside for winter use. Apples are more numerous 
than Pears, and have occurred not only at Wangen, 
but also at Robenhausen, in Lake Pfeffikon, and at 
Concise, in Lake Neufchatel. Both Apples and 
Pears are small, and resemble those which still 
grow wild in the Swiss forests." 
Within historic times the Romans cultivated at 
least twenty-two varieties, which they had already 
divided into sweet Apples for eating and others for 
culinary purposes. They also possessed a variety 
without a core. Something similar was exhibited at 
the Apple and Pear Conference at Chiswick in 1888. 
The Wild or Crab Apple is a native of Britain 
from the Forth and Clyde southwards ; but there is 
every reason to believe that the cultivated and 
improved sorts of the present day have mostly or 
* A paper read by Mr. John Fraser before the Ealing Gar¬ 
deners’ Mutual Improvement Association. 
all been derived from Continental sources, and not 
from our native Crab. In all likelihood the Romans 
introduced some of the varieties they possessed, as 
in the case of other fruits of their native country. 
At all events we have records showing that Apples 
were largely cultivated as far north as Dunkeld as 
early as a d. 470, that is, before the advent of the 
Saxons to that part of the country. 
It is fortunate for us that the Apple should have 
been a native of this country, and that the improved 
sorts should take kindly to British soil, for Britain 
has always been from an early period comparatively 
independent in the matter of raising new sorts of 
superior merit for cultivation in this country. 
Indeed, the varieties have been so numerous, that 
various writers have from time to time given a select 
list of those worthy of preservation. It is worthy 
of note that of the numerous varieties of French 
origin 130 to 150 years ago, only three of them were 
considered worthy of preservation in Philip Miller's 
time. 
In those days, and for at least 100 years previously, 
the Paradise and other dwarfing stocks, as well as 
free stocks and Crab stocks, were well known to 
fruit growers. Several eminent writers were of 
opinion that the true Crab stock was the best, most 
durable and hardy whereon to graft all trees except 
for small gardens, pot work and by way of curiosity, 
as in the case of the French who grafted or budded 
their trees on the Paradise, grew them in pots, and 
brought them to the table with the fruit upon them. 
We now understand the use of the various stocks 
much better at the present day, and it is significant 
to note how comparatively useless is the French 
Paradise for all except small trees for pot culture. 
The Doucin will be the dwarfingstock of the future. 
When land tenure is on a better footing it is more 
than probable that Crab stocks, or something closely 
similar, will be largely employed for standard trees 
to be planted in orchards. 
About the beginning of the present century the 
raising of new varieties of Apples was in active pro¬ 
gress, yearly superseding those already planted over 
the length and breath of the land. Many of these 
were being brought before the public in 1818, and 
Joseph Sabine, in a paper read before the Horticul¬ 
tural Society of London, said that the attention of the 
society was directed to the forming of a list of those 
Apples whose value was ascertained and of en¬ 
couraging the distribution and cultivation of those 
only. He also said thai the Apples to be seen in the 
shops of the metropolis were so inferior as to excite 
surprise that they should be purchased. A list of 
ninety two sorts of dessert Apples was furnished soon 
after by another writer, of which only two dozen or 
so are now anything like common. A list of 
forty-eight culinary Apples of the same date might 
now be reduced to a dozen. Very few even of those 
are popular at the present day. So great has been 
the improvement in size, colour, and other qualities 
of culinary Apples since then that the list then given 
would now be very considerably reduced and a 
greater number of superior and popular sorts added. 
The list of dessert Apples is not so seriously affected. 
In the face of these facts there is still good evidence 
that we can yet improve and should give encourage¬ 
ment to the improvement of the Apple. In spite of 
the modern competition from the New World, we 
should still uphold the fact that with few exceptions 
British Apples are the best in the world, and looking 
to our reputation, show that our country is not 
merely a land of fogs nor that our Apples are all 
Crabs. 
Pears. 
I have already mentioned the fact that Pears are 
of prehistoric antiquity as an article of food. The 
Romans possessed more than three dozen sorts, in¬ 
cluding melting and hard varieties, and some were 
named Libralia, just as we have Catillac or Pound 
Pear. Although the tree is naturalised in this 
country it is not a true native, nor does it ever 
appear to have been anything but of secondary im¬ 
portance to the Apple in this country. The greater 
number of the best varieties are of Continental 
origin, as they were 150 years ago or even earlier. 
About that time great improvements were effected in 
the cultivation of Pears in this country, whereby 
some of them were made to ripen their fruits one or 
two months earlier than they were wont to do 
previously. This was brought about by grafting or 
budding upon the Quince stock, as well as by work¬ 
ing late kinds on summer ripening varieties, by 
pruning and by growing them as dwarfs for walls 
and espaliers. Philip Miller in 1759 described eighty 
of the best then in cultivation, many of which are still 
in existence. His lengthy list was made to please 
those who are fond of variety, for failure was as 
frequent then as now, if not more so, in securing a 
crop. 
In 1811 we were much in the same position as now 
with regard to the raising of varieties suited for our 
climate. About that time the Horticultural Society 
intended to offer premiums and medals with the 
object of improving various kinds of fruit, including 
Pears. It wanted to encourage the production of 
Fears like those obtained from France, but suffi¬ 
ciently hardy to ripen on standard trees, and supply 
the markets with a good commodity at a reasonable 
price during winter and spring. About the same 
time it was stated by another writer that the English 
were outdone by the French in the division of labour. 
In some parts of France whole villages were often 
engaged in the production of a single kind of fruit, 
and in that they excelled all who divided their at¬ 
tention amongst a great number. By this method 
greater perfection was attained than in any other way. 
Notwithstanding all encouragements given, the 
bulk of the best of our Pears enjoy Continental or 
foreign names. The uncertainties of our climate, 
and comparatively low temperature stand in the way 
of anything like certainty of securing remunerative 
crops except in fine seasons. The finest Pears reach 
our markets from France and the Channel Islands. 
The question of raising varieties better suited for our 
climate still remains ; and until that is settled the 
most feasible plan for those who would grow Pears 
for commercial purposes in this country, would be to 
settle in the more favoured and southern districts cf 
England, just as growers of various other fruits or 
vegetables, should settle in districts pre-eminently 
suited for one kind or another. 
Potatos. 
The Potato had been cultivated from time im¬ 
memorial and brought to great perfection by the 
natives of Peru and other parts of South America 
before the arrival of the Spaniards, so that much 
that had been considered new in this country, after 
its introduction had doubtless been a repetition of 
what previously existed. It is supposed that the 
colonists who were sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh 
in Queen Elizabeth's time, in 1584 brought back the 
Potato with them in 1586. Gerard in his “ Herbal ” 
figures it in 1597 under the name of Potato of Vir¬ 
ginia, and recommends it to be eaten as a delicate 
dish. It is probable, however, that the Spaniards 
carried it from Quito to Spain prior to the above 
date, for it was in common use in Italy in 1598. 
Its early history in this country is somewhat 
amusing. Shakespeare in the Merry Wives of 
Windsor, says " Let it tain Potatos, and hail kiss¬ 
ing comfits," in allusion to the manner in which our 
ancestors were duped by the imaginary qualities of 
the Potato, which was served up in the form of con¬ 
fectionery and sold at a high price by dealers about 
the Royal Exchange. 
Coming to more recent times when the cultivation 
of the Potato had taken a firm hold of this country, 
we find that not only had numerous varieties been 
raised, but that the average duration of a variety had 
been determined. Dr. Hunter limited this to four¬ 
teen years. As modern instances of this, amongst 
the many kinds that might be named, may be cited 
the Scotch Champion not now so disease-resisting as 
it used to be, and the popular Magnum Bonum, now 
being superseded by The Bruce for field purposes. 
Andrew Knight, 6 ne of the memb:rs of the first 
council of the Horticultural Society, and who did so 
much for horticulture, mentions an ingenious experi¬ 
ment which he carried out to prevent early varieties 
of Potatos from producing tubers in order to make 
them flower and produce seeds. He planted some 
Potatos on the south side of mounds of soil, and 
when the stems were 4 in. high he fastened them up 
to stakes and then washed away the soil from them 
by means of a strong current of water, till nothing 
but the fibrous roots retained a hold upon the soil. 
Flowers were freely produced and likewise seed in 
quantity by those early varieties which previously 
refused to bloom. Then he proposed crossing the 
flowers of large late kinds with pollen of early ones 
in order to get early varieties suitable for field pur¬ 
poses. I mention this to demonstrate the utility of 
scientific experiments, and the activity in horticul¬ 
tural progress that then prevailed. 
