132 
THU CULTIVATOR. 
bones, but on that of the muscles. Many animals with large bones 
are weak, their muscles being small. 
Animals that were imperfectly nourished during growth, have 
their bones disproportionately large. If such deficiency of nourish¬ 
ment originated from a constitutional delect, which is the most fre¬ 
quent cause, they remain weak during life. Large bones, therefore, 
generally indicate an imperfection in the organs of nutrition. 
ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF FORM. 
To obtain the most approved form, two modes of breeding have 
been practised ; one bv the selection of individuals of the same fa¬ 
mily, called breeding in-and-in: the other, by selecting males and 
females from different varieties of the same species, which is called 
crossing the breed. 
When a particular variety approaches perfection in form, breed¬ 
ing in-and-in may be the better practice; especially for those who 
are not well acquainted with the principles on which improvement 
depends. 
When the male is much larger than the female, the offspring is 
generally of an imperfect form. If the female be proportion ably 
larger than the male, the offspring is of an improved form. 
For instance, if a well-formed large ram be put to ewes propor- 
tionably small, the lambs will not be so well-shaped as their parents ; 
and if a small ram be put to large ewes, the lambs will be of an im¬ 
proved form. 
The proper method of improving the forms of animals, consists 
in selecting a well formed female, proportionably larger than the 
male. 
The improvement depends on this principle, that the power of the 
female to supply her offspring with nourishment, is in proportion to 
her size, and the power of nourishing herself from the excellence of 
her constitution. 
The size of the foetus is generally in proportion to that of the male 
parent, and, therefore, when the female parent is disproportion ably 
small, the quantity of nourishment is deficient, and the offspring has 
all the disproportions of a starveling. 
But when the female, from her size and good constitution, is more 
than adequate to the nourishment of a foetus of a smaller male than 
herself, the growth must be proportionably greater. 
The larger female has also a greater quantity of milk, and her 
offspring is more abundantly supplied with nourishment after birth. 
To produce the best formed animals, abundant nourishment is ne¬ 
cessary, from the earliest period of its existence until its growth is 
entire. 
It has been observed in the beginning of the paper, that the power 
to prepare the greatest quantity of nourishment from a given quan¬ 
tity of food, depends principally on the magnitude of the lungs to 
which the organs of digestion are subservient. 
To obtain animals with large lungs, crossing is the most expedi¬ 
tious, because well formed females may be selected from a variety 
of a large size, to be put to a well formed male of a variety that is 
rather smaller. 
By such a method of crossing, the lungs and heart become pro¬ 
portionably larger, in consequence of a peculiarity in the circulation 
of the foetus, which causes a larger proportion of the blood under 
such circumstances, to be distributed to the lungs, than to the other 
parts of the body, and as the shape and size of the chest, depend 
on that of the lungs, hence arises the remarkably large chest w hich 
is produced by crossing with females that are larger than the males. 
The practice according to this principle of improvement, however, 
ought to be limited; for it may be carried to such an extent, that 
the bulk of the body might be so disproportioned to the size of the 
limbs, as to prevent the animals from moving with sufficient facility. 
In animals where activity is required, this practice should not 
be extended so far as in those which are intended for the food of 
man. 
ON THE CHARACTER OF ANIMALS. 
By character in animals is here meant, those external appearan¬ 
ces by which the varieties of the same species are distinguished. 
The characters of both parents are observed in their offspring, but 
that of the male most frequently predominates. This may be illus¬ 
trated in the breeding of horned animals, among which there are 
many varieties of sheep, and some of cattle, which are horned. 
If a hornless ram be put to a horned ewe, almost all the lambs 
will be hornless, partaking of the character of the male, more than 
of the female parent. 
In some counties, as Norfolk, Wilkshire and Dorsetshire, most of 
the sheep have horns. In Norfolk, the horns may be got rid of by 
crossing with Ryland rams, which would also improve the form of 
the chest and the quantity of the wool. 
In Wilkshire and Dorsetshire, the same improvement might be 
made by crossing the sheep with Southdown rams. 
An offspring without horns might be obtained from the Devon cat¬ 
tle, by crossing with the hornless bulls of the Galloway breed. This 
would also improve the form of the chest, which the Devons are of¬ 
ten deficient in. 
EXAMPLES OF THE GOOD EFFECTS OF CROSSING THE BREED. 
The great improvement of the breed of horses in England, arose 
from crosses with the diminutive stallions, Barbs and Arabians ; and 
the introduction of Flanders mares into this country, was the source 
of improvements in the breed of cart horses. 
The form of swine has also been greatly improved by crossing 
with the small Chinese boar. 
EXAMPLES OF THE BAD EFFECTS OF CROSSING THE BREED. 
When it became the fashion in London, to drive large bay horses, 
the farmers in Yorkshire, put their mares to much larger stallions 
than usual, and thus did infinite mischief to their breed, by produc¬ 
ing a race of small chested, long legged, large headed, worthless 
animals. 
A similar project was adopted in Normandy, to enlarge the breed 
of horses there, by the use of stallions from Holstein; and in con¬ 
sequence, the best breed of horses in France would have been spoil¬ 
ed, had not the farmers discovered their mistake in time, by ob¬ 
serving the offspring much inferior in form to that of the native 
stallions. 
Some graziers in the Isle of Shepley, conceived that they could 
improve their sheep by large Lincolnshire rams, the produce of 
which was, however, much inferior in the shape of the carcase, and 
the quality of the wool, and their flocks were greatly injured by this 
attempt to improve them. 
Attempts to improve the native animals of a country, and by any 
plan of crossing, should be made with the greatest caution; for by 
a mistaken practice, extensively pursued, irreparable mischief may 
be done. 
In any country where a particular race of animals has continued 
for centuries, it may be presumed that their constitution is adapted 
to the food and climate. 
The pliancy of the animal economy is such, as that an animal 
will gradually accommodate itself to very great vicissitudes in cli¬ 
mate and alterations in food, and by degrees undergo great changes 
in constitution; but these changes can be effected only by degrees, 
and may often require a great number of successive generations for 
their accomplishment. 
It may be proper to improve the form of a native race, but at the 
same time it may be a very injudicious attempt to enlarge the size. 
The size of animals is commonly adapted to the soil which they 
inhabit. Where produce is nutritive and abundant, the animals are 
large, having grown proportionally to the quantity of food which for 
generations they have been accustomed to obtain. Where the pro¬ 
duce is scanty, the animals are small, being proportioned to the 
quantity of food which they are able to procure—of these contrasts 
the sheep of Lincolnshire and of Wales, are examples. The sheep 
of Lincolnshire would starve on the mountains of Wales. 
Crossing the breed of animals may be attended with bad effects 
in various ways, and that even when adopted in the beginning on a 
good principle; for instance, suppose some larger ewes than those 
of the native breed, were taken to the mountains of Wales, and 
put to the rams of that country—if these foreign ewes were fed in 
proportion to their size, their lambs would be of an improved form, 
and larger in size than the native animals; but the males produced 
by this cross, though of a good form, would be disproportionate in 
size to the native ewes, and, therefore, if permitted to mix with 
them, would be productive of a starveling, ill-formed progeny. Thus 
a cross which was at first an improvement, would, by giving occa¬ 
sion to a contrary cross, ultimately prejudice the breed. 
The general mistake in crossing has arisen from an attempt to in¬ 
crease the size of a native race of animals, being a fruitless effort 
to counteract the laws of nature. 
The Arabian horses are, in general, the most perfect in the 
world ; which probably has arisen from great care in selection, and 
also from being unmixed with any variety of the same species; the 
males, therefore, have never been disproportioned to the size of the 
females. 
