54 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
and the composition of our soils will probably be found 
to correspond very nearly with these numbers, with the 
exception perhaps of the potassa, which may in a good 
measure have disappeared by the operation of vegeta¬ 
tion.”* That this is in the main, a correct representa¬ 
tion of the manner in which soils are formed, and of 
their general composition, no one who is in the habit of 
observing the action of the agents now at work on the 
crust of the earth, can doubt. 
Where the soil is mostly based on the primitive rocks, 
or where these approach the surface over considerable 
tracts of country, the soil will partake of the character 
of the rocks below, and may therefore be properly term¬ 
ed primitive. As an example of a primitive region, we 
refer to New-England, the most of which is decidedly of 
that class—the tracts of transition, secondary, or terti¬ 
ary, being of limited extent. Of the primitive soils, that 
formed from gneiss may be considered the poorest, and 
that from rocks in which feldspar abounds the best. Per¬ 
haps the difference may be found in the greater quanti¬ 
ty of alumina the latter contains, rendering the soil more 
tenacious than that formed of a greater proportion of 
silex. Feldspar also contains large quantities of potassa, 
in some instances equaling 14 or 15 per cent, and this, 
unquestionably, exercises a powerful influence on the 
fertility of the lands produced by its decomposition. 
Primitive soils are less fertile, naturally, than those on 
the other stratas; since, as the fertility of all soils is 
owing to the quantity of animal and vegetable matter 
combined with the original earths, it is clear that the 
others, containing in their substance much of their fer¬ 
tilizing matter, must by their disintegration produce 
soils more readily productive than such as have origin¬ 
ated at once from rocks destitute of these ingredients. 
There are sections, however, of all primitive districts, 
that are of the most fertile description; and in all cases 
where the earth is of sufficient depth, it can be brought 
by the application of manures to any desirable degree 
of productiveness. Primitive regions are noted for their 
salubrity, for the abundance and purity of their waters, 
and for their exemption from those sources of malaria 
and death, that render a settlement in some of the other 
districts, only a certain approach to the grave. Primi¬ 
tive regions are the most difficult to cultivate; but the 
population of such sections, have always been remarka¬ 
ble in all parts of the world for their energetic, active 
dispositions, and their elevated moral standing. We 
need not go beyond the limits of the United States for 
satisfactory illustrations of these statements. 
Soils formed from the different strata, are not always 
accurately defined by the rocks they cover. Examina¬ 
tion shows, that during the abrasion and wearing to 
which they have been subjected by the strong currents 
of water passing over them, the detritus has generally 
been moved to some considerable distance in a direction 
with the current; and in many instances rocks of a rare 
kind or limited extent, have been discovered by tracing 
back to their origin the fragments so removed. Of this 
kind of facts, numberless instances may be adduced in 
the northern states, where the diluvium is evidently the 
result of a current flowing from the north. Of course 
the soils to the south of any class or strata of rock, feel 
its influence more or less as they are removed from it 
in that direction to a greater or less distance. If the 
strata is sandstone, silex will predominate in the soil 
above, or in that made from the disintegration: if of 
limestone, the earth will be filled with blocks or bould¬ 
ers of that stone, or of limestone gravel, the quantity 
diminishing as we recede from the place of outcrop ; and 
if of clay shale, the soil above will abound in clay in 
proportion to the quantity contained in the decomposed 
or worn out rock of that species. To the agriculturist, 
the knowledge of these facts is important, as enabling 
him to determine with great certainty the qualities of 
the soils he cultivates, or the character of the farm he is 
intending to purchase. 
The transition class of rocks succeed the primitive, 
and as a greater surface of this rock is exposed, and the 
class is composed of more easily disintegrated materials, 
it exercises a greater influence on agriculture than the 
other. In addition to these things the transition strata 
contain portions of animal and vegetable matter, which, 
when combined with the original earths, contribute much 
to the fertility of the soils so produced. That these 
rocks are rich in animal remains, the multitude of fos¬ 
sils found in them most abundantly prove. One of the 
best defined tracts of transition to be found perhaps in 
the world, may perhaps be seen in western New-York. 
The same strata indeed occupies part of Ohio, the 
southwestern part of Upper Canada, Michigan, Wis¬ 
consin, and probably stretches to the Rocky Mountains, 
but no where in the whole extent can it be so well ob¬ 
served as in New-York. Here the whole series, from 
the stratified primitive rocks of gneiss and limestone 
upwards, to within a short distance of the coal forma¬ 
tion lying above in Pennsylvania, can be distinctly ob¬ 
served, and the effects of the different kinds of rocks, 
sandstones, limestones, clay-slate, &c. &c. most satisfac¬ 
torily traced. The thickness of the transition strata in 
New-York, or from the primitive rocks to the coal for¬ 
mation, is probably eight or ten thousand feet; and 
where the same strata out crops, in Penn, it has been 
estimated at seventeen thousand feet; showing that 
some of the strata are thinner at the north than at the 
south. That such is the case, the example of the rock 
called by our state geologists, the Oriskany sandstone, 
conclusively proves. This strata, easily distinguished 
* Prof. Hitchcock’s Economical Geology of Massachusetts, 7, 
by its structure and its fossils wherever it appears, has 
a thickness in Pennsylvania, of about 700 feet, while in 
Oneida, Onondaga and Cayuga counties in New-York, 
it is found from 18 inches (or in one case, at the cele¬ 
brated Split Rock limestone quarry near Syracuse it is 
only a thin layer of sand) to 30 feet. The effect of the 
several limestone strata are very distinctly marked on 
the soils of this series, and give to what has been termed 
the northeren slope of New-York, its peculiar character 
for fertilty. The soils above the sandstones of the strata, 
except in some places too levelfor draining, are dry: those 
above the limestones, are dry and warm; above the 
shales, varying in their quality according to the nature 
of the rock below, but always more compact than the 
others owing to the larger amount of clay the decomposi¬ 
tion of such shales is sure to produce. It may be re¬ 
marked too, that the influence of these rocks are uni¬ 
formly felt to the south instead of north of the places 
where they appear, thus showing that the abrading 
agent acted from north to south. That this immense 
mass of rocks, of such different materials, and each 
strata of such uniform and great extent, was deposited 
in still waters, and at widely separated intervals of time, 
the perfect state of the fossils they contain, as various 
and as well defined as the strata in which they are 
found, most clearly demonstrates. Much the larger 
part of this vast area of transition is marked by a de¬ 
scent or dip of the strata to the south, of from 30 to 50 
feet in a mile, owing to which cause the streams flowing 
north abound in falls as they pass from one strata to 
another, while those flowing from the south, glide along 
over an unbroken surface and are boatable almost to 
their sources. The best wheat regions in the United 
States and probably in the world, are found on the tran¬ 
sition strata ; and for proof of this, so far this continent 
is concerned, it is only necessary to refer to the transi¬ 
tion districts of Virginia, Pennsylvania, New-York, 
Ohio, and Michigan. For all the ordinary purposes of 
farming, soils based on the transition series of rocks, 
are found preferable to most others, easily cultivated, 
and very productive. Every person acquainted with 
the character of these rocks, will be able to distinguish 
the general characteristics of the soil near them, and 
can regulate his choice accordingly. As a general rule 
it may be observed that the excellence and depth of fer¬ 
tile soil, will depend on the permeable nature of the 
subsoil, and its freedom from surplus or stagnant water. 
Soils too porous or too dense, are alike objectionable to 
the agriculturist; the first allowing manures to pass be¬ 
yond the reach of plants, and the last being hard to 
work, and till their character is partially changed, im¬ 
proper for some crops. 
Immediately above the transition appears the secon¬ 
dary rocks, embracing the coal formations of this coun¬ 
try, and reaching to the south of the great transition 
belt, from the Alleganiesto the Rocky mountains, cover¬ 
ing a large part of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, be¬ 
sides considerable districts in other parts of the United 
States. The interspersed strata of this formation are 
shale, slate, limestone, coal, and the disintegration of 
these, as in the case of the transition class, produces 
soil of various conditions and qualities. Nowhere can 
a soil of greater fertility be found than is embraced in the 
immense basin bounded by transition of the north, the 
Rocky mountains of the west, the Ozark and Tennessee 
ranges to the south, and the Alleganies to the east, in¬ 
cluding the greater parts of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, all 
of Missouri and Arkansas, and the most of Tennessee 
and Kentucky; and perhaps no where in the world can 
a distinct of the the same dimensions be pointed out, 
capable of supporting so large a population as this se¬ 
condary region. For all the purposes of agriculture, 
the upper transition and the secondary, may be con¬ 
sidered the same, as the soil, products, &c. do not es¬ 
sentially vary, the one from the other. The principal 
difference existing is found in the fossils which mark a 
new and later era, and those vast beds of coal so abun¬ 
dantly adapted to, and apparently expressly provided 
for, the wants of the future millions of the human race. 
When we look at the manner in which these beds of 
coal are diffused; the influence this mineral has exerted, 
and is destined to exert on the sciences and arts; and its 
indispensable nature in the economy and comfort of 
yearly increasing millions, the mind can scarcely refrain 
from admitting the evidences of wisdom and design this 
formation presents. 
The last and upper series of rocks, is termed the ter¬ 
tiary, and bear, in their constitution and fossils, every 
mark of comparatively recent origin. These rocks 
abound in marls, easily disintegrated rocks, and the 
soils originating from them generally partake of the 
character of the rocks beneath. A broad belt of ter¬ 
tiary may be found in the United States, considered as 
beginning at Long-Island, embracing the greater part of 
New-Jersey, a considerable portion of Maryland, and 
the States still farther south, and terminating on the 
Gulf of Mexico. The general character of the soils is 
sandy, and until within a few years has been considered 
of an inferior description. The united advances, how¬ 
ever, of geology and agriculture, have shown that these 
nearly worthless districts, as they were thought, contain 
below the surface, the elements of the greatest fertility, 
and that nothing but knowledge to appreciate the fact, 
and well applied labor to av r ail the farmer of the pro¬ 
vided treasure, was necessary to render these sterile 
plains eminently productive. The marls, and the green 
sand found but a few feet below the surface of most of 
these tertiary tracts, are invaluable sources of fertility 
when raised from their beds and applied to the sandy 
earths. The marls are strongly calcareous, and abound 
in animal and vegetable matter, while the green sand 
contains according the report of Prof. Rogers no less than 
ten per cent of potassa, sufficient of itself to constitute 
this substance one of the most efficient fertilizers. The 
clay combined with the marl, Avhen spread on the soil, 
gives the power of retaining moisture, and thus cor¬ 
rects one of the greatest difficulties in the cultivation of 
this class of soils. The discovery and application of 
these substances has produced an entire change in the 
agriculture of a large part of NeAv-Jersey, and as beds 
are opened in the States further south, and the attention 
of the cultivator there is directed to the subject, we may 
reasonably expect the same beneficial results Avill ensue 
on the tertiary sands of the south, that have been pro¬ 
duced by the same agents on those of the north. 
Above the rock formations we have named, occur the 
masses of earths called diluvium and alluvium, on which 
all the operations of husbandry are conducted, and on 
the material of which, and their proportions, the fertili¬ 
ty or sterility of soils depend. Diluvium occupies more 
of the surface of almost every country than any other. 
It is composed of boulders, pebbles, clay, gravel and 
sand in ever varying proportions, furnished by disin¬ 
tegrated or broken up strata ; the boulders and peb¬ 
bles usually rounded by attrition, and bearing in their ap¬ 
pearance every mark of transportation and deposition. 
It has resulted from the action of powerful currents, 
and no existing causes seem capable of producing such 
effects ; at least none such are now active. It is spread 
over nearly all the strata ; is found covering with its 
masses high mountains, and most of the rounded hills 
and elevations spread over the country, OAve their origin 
entirely to accumulations of this material. In some 
parts this covering is composed of gravel or pebbles 
so loosely put together as to be unfit for agriculture ; in 
other places these pebbles are cemented Avith clay, and 
produce a subsoil impervious to water and improper for 
some kinds of vegetation. This compactmass is called 
till or hardpan. We are frequently able to trace the 
materials that constitute a bed or covering of diluvium 
to their source, and where this is the case, the course of 
the currents producing it, and its value to the agricul¬ 
turist, can in a great degree be determined. The dilu¬ 
vium produced by the breaking up of limestone strata 
will usually be found equal to any other, and the posi¬ 
tion of the strata, and course of the currents, will enable 
the observer to determine where such will be likely to 
exist. 
Alluvium, where it is found, lies above all other soils, 
and is the richest of all that have been produced. This 
soil is made from lightest, richest and most valuable parts 
of all others, being washed from the surface by rains, 
carried down by the rains ; and deposited in sIoav moving 
or stagnant Avaters. The deltas of the Ganges, Nile and 
Mississippi; the valleys of the Missouri, Connecticut 
and Genesee, furnish some of the most striking and fa¬ 
miliar'examples of this soil. Where not liable to de¬ 
structive inundation, alluvium forms the most desirable 
of soils, being of almost inexhaustable fertility, and 
easily tvorked. The greatest drawback on such dis¬ 
tricts is a tendency in them to generate malaria, or the 
agent that produces fever and ague, bilious fevers, or 
yellow fevers, according to its intensity and duration. 
In conclusion we would say, if the farmer tvould under¬ 
stand the nature of the soil he cultivates, he should be 
able to trace its origin; and to do this geology furnishes 
the key and the guide. Let them be improved. 
Culture of the Potato. 
By common consent the potato has been placed at the 
head of all the edible roots, wherever it has been intro¬ 
duced, and the climate would admit of its cultivation. 
Originating from an obscure and worthless root among 
the "Cordilleras of South America, in spite of prejudice 
and opposition, it has spread with a rapidity unlcnoAin 
to any other vegetable, and is doubtless destined to make 
the circuit of the globe, adding in an incalculable degree 
to the means of subsistence. There are few if any vege¬ 
tables grown in the temperate zone that yield so great 
an amoomt of food per acre as the potato. Wheat, ac¬ 
cording to Sir H. Davy, contains 95tl parts of nutritious 
matter in 1000; and the potato 250; but when it is re¬ 
membered that the yield of the potato on an average is 
from ten to fifteen times as much per acre as wheat, the 
advantage in favor of the potato is manifest. Besides 
such is the human organization that pure nutritive mat¬ 
ter is injurious to its healthy functions, and the stomach 
requires to be more or less distended with other matter 
before the excitement necessary to nutrition takes place. 
We are, therefore, justified in supposing that good po¬ 
tatoes used exclusively as an article of food, would be 
less injurious than pure wheat flour. Be this as it 
may, the potato in most civilized countries now ranks 
next as an article of food to the rice of the tropics; and 
the wheat and maize of the more temparate regions. 
To Europe is America indebted for the Graminse, and 
had we returned them nothing more than the potato and 
maize, the debt must have been considered as can¬ 
celled. 
The potato is usually propagated by the tubers or 
roots, but new varieties are obtained or old ones that 
have partially degenerated restored, by cultivating them 
from seed. There are few plants that show more deci¬ 
sively the improvement that may be made by cultiva¬ 
tion than the potato. In 1838. a quantity of the origi¬ 
nal roots were brought from South America to England, 
and carefully planted The result w-as a small inferior 
root, more resembling the ground nut than the potato, 
