59 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
USED IN' 
Agriculture and its Kindred Sciences. 
ATMOSPHERE. That mass of thin, elastic, and usu¬ 
ally invisible fluid, in which the earth floats, and with 
which that and other bodies are surrounded. The height 
of the atmosphere is calculated at 46 miles; its pressure 
on the earth to be equal to that of a column of water 
32± feet high, and on the body of a middling sized man 
at 32,440 pounds. The density of the atmosphere di¬ 
minishes in geometrical, while the height increases in 
arithmetical progression. In all the functions of animal 
and vegetable life, the atmosphere acts a most impor¬ 
tant part. It is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, car¬ 
bonic gas, aqueous vapor, and a minute quantity of hy¬ 
drogen. In addition to these permanent ingredients, it 
contains a multitude of other substances, in the form 
of vapor or gas, varying in kind and quantity according 
to circumstances, but all exercising more or less an in¬ 
fluence on the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Of those 
that effect the animal, that undetermined something 
called miasma, which produces diseases to such an extent 
as to render some of the most fertile districts of the 
globe scarcely habitable, may be adduced ; and of those 
that act on the vegetable, the ammoniacal products, the 
result of fermentation, may be mentioned. By stirring 
the earth, the absorption of these atmospheric agents 
is greatly promoted, and the consequent vegetation of 
plants proportionably accelerated. 
AWNS. The long bristle-like terminations of the en¬ 
velop of the kernel in some kinds of plants, is termed 
the awn or beard. It is particularly conspicuous in 
some kinds of winter wheat, in most varieties of spring 
wheat, and in ail the kinds of barley. Wheat without 
beards can be converted into the bearded, and vice versa 
by changing the sowing from autumn to spring, or from 
spring to autumn. Of all grains, barley is the most li¬ 
berally provided with this formidable appendage. 
AZOTE. A gas, which constitutes the most impor¬ 
tant portion of the air, and is sometimes called nitrogen, 
because one of the most essential properties of its base 
is, that in conjunction with oxygen, it composes nitric 
acid. Though in itself fatal to animal life, it abounds 
in animal substances, and forms ammonia with their 
hydrogen when burned. The great difference between 
animal and vegetable substances lies in this, the former 
contains azote, and the latter is destitute of it. Owing 
to its feeble affinity for other substances, the number of 
compounds into which azote enters is small, and its in¬ 
fluence on agriculture, with the exception of its effect 
when combined Avith animal matter, proportionably li¬ 
mited. 
BACON. The flesh of SAvine that has been subjected 
to the process of smoking OA r er a Avood fire, is termed 
bacon ; but the parts to Avhich this term is most usually 
applied, and Avhich are usually chosen for bacon, are 
the hams, and the cheeks or joAvls. A good ham is one 
of the most excellent kinds of food, and this goodness 
in a great measure is depending on their preparation. 
The kinds most celebrated, are the Westphalia, princi¬ 
pally brought from Hamburgh; the Hampshire, from 
England; and in the United States, the Virginia, or 
southern ham. generally. It is not knoAvn that there is 
any thing peculiar in the feeding or pickling the Ham¬ 
burgh hams; but their superiority is attributed to the 
manner in Avhich they are smoked. This is performed 
in large chambers in the third or fourth stories of build¬ 
ings, "to Avhich the smoke is conducted in tubes from 
fires of oak or maple chips in the cellar of the building. 
In passing this distance, the vapor which smoke usually 
holds, is deposited, and the hams are perfectly dry and 
cool during the whole process The Hampshire bacon 
is made from pork not scalded in dressing, but deprived 
of the hair by quick fires of straAV or other combustible 
materials. This singeing is repeated tAvo or three 
times as the case may require, when the hog is cut up, 
pickled and carefully smoked. These hams are parti¬ 
cularly hard and fine, which is attributed to the skin not 
haA'ing been softened by scalding. The Virginia or 
southern hams, are supposed to OAve much of their su¬ 
perior flavor to the animals being allowed to run at large 
the most of the time of feeding ; to their being much in 
the Avoods, and wild, giving more firmness to the mus¬ 
cle ; and to their feeding much on acorns and other 
products of the forests. Virginia hams are usually 
small, the hogs themselves rarely weighing over two 
hundred: And the pickling and smoking performed 
in the best manner. The great defects in smoking, 
commonly are, the hams are too near the fire ; and the 
house is too tight. The hams are in consequence kept 
too warm, from the fire, and the condensation of the 'va¬ 
por keeps them Avet. Dryness Avhile smoking is indis¬ 
pensable to good bacon. 
BARK. Modern AATiters on vegetable physiology di¬ 
vide plants into exogenous and endogenous ; in the first 
of which, the additions that constitute growth are made 
successively on the exterior side of the parts from Avhich 
they proceed; and in the last the groAVth is the result 
of additions made internally. The trees of northern 
regions, such as the pine, oak, and elm, belong to the 
first class; the trees of tropical climes, such as the 
palm, cane, bamboo, and all grain bearing plants, be¬ 
long to the last. The first named trees or plants, only, 
have a proper bark. In this class of vegetables, every 
year adds a new layer of wood Avhich is the alburnum; 
and a new layer of bark, which is denominated the li¬ 
ber. Bark, then, is divided into three parts; the inner 
layer called the liber; the zone of successive outer lay¬ 
ers, called the cellular envelop ; and the exterior sur¬ 
face of this envelop, which is termed the epidermis. A 
cross section of the bark of the basswood or elm, will 
exhibit this structure in perfection. The ^rk exercu 
ses an important influence in preserving plants fiomthe 
effect of frost, and the alburnum from injury, and can¬ 
not be removed without inflicting severe or fatal inju¬ 
ries to the trees. A. healthy and clean bark is essential 
to a vigorous growth ; and an occasional wash ol soap, 
lime, or ashes, is found beneficial, when trees are attack¬ 
ed bv insects or mosses. . . . 
BARLEY. One of the common cultivated grains, in 
use from time immemorial, and extensively cultivated 
in modern times. It has a thick spike, with lo ng awns 
attached to the kernel. It is divided into seveial kinds, 
of Avhich the most common are the long eared, or two 
rowed barley, the square or six rowed, and sprat or bat¬ 
tle door barley. The six rowed is most commonly cul¬ 
tivated in the north of England and Scotland, having the 
reputation of being the hardiest plant. In this country 
the long eared or tAvo roAved has usually obtained the 
preference; producing a Avhiter, fairer gram, and smut¬ 
ting less than other kinds. Barley in this country is 
principally used for malting; in other countries V is ex¬ 
tensively used for bread, and for feeding cattle. Bail y 
has met with little favor in this country as food for hor¬ 
ses, but there is nothing improper m the gram, as is 
evident from the fact that barley is almost the only 
grain given to horses in the east, where the best and 
finest horses are found. The difficulty lies rn tlie mode 
of feeding. Barley is one of the best substitutes for 
corn in making pork. It requires a rich soil, rather 
moist than dry; and the ground should be made fine be¬ 
fore the seed is soAvn. From tAvo to tAvo and a hail 
bushels of seed per acre, is the usual quantity alloAvea. 
BAROMETER. An instrument for measuring the 
Aveight of the air. Torricelli Avas the inventor, about 
the beginning of the 17th century. Torricelli reasoned, 
that as the pressure of the atmosphere was equal to a 
column of water about 33 feet high, mercury, Avhich is 
nearly 14 times heavier, would rise about 30 inches, and 
the result justified his conclusion. The changes in t le 
height of the column of mercury preceding, or during 
changes of the weather, have given great value to this 
instrument, and obtained for it, among common people, 
the name of the weather glass, as foretelling the weather. 
It is a most valuable instrument at sea ; its rapid fail 
previous to violent storms, putting the mariner on his 
guard, and since its use has been understood, has been 
the means of saving many valuable vessels and lives an¬ 
nually. It might be of essential service to farmers; but 
is yet has not received from them the attention it de¬ 
serves, as connected with meteorology, a science m 
which they are so much interested. 
BASIN. A term in geology used to designate a sec¬ 
tion of country converging to a point lower than the re¬ 
mainder, which part is most usually occupied by lakes, 
swamps, or rivers. Thus we speak of the basin of the 
Hudson north of the Highlands; that of the Mohawk 
above Little Falls; or the basins of Lake Erie, and 
Lake Ontario. The best defined basins of Europe are 
those of London and Paris. The first of these basins 
is a bed of clay in some places 700 feet in thickness. 
The basin of Paris is formed of chalk, alternating with 
limestone, marls and gypsum. 
BAULK. Ground left unturned between the furrow 
slices in ploAving, and also strips of ground usually in 
grass between plowed ridges, as in common field lands. 
These are the European definitions ; in this country far¬ 
mers give the term rather Avider definition, and include 
the strips of grass land that border plowed fields, and 
occupied by fences, &c. When fences are removed such 
baulks are found the richest part of the fields. Few 
things indicate more clearly the general skill and con¬ 
duct of the farmer than the baulks of his fields. The 
skilful plowman is at once distingushed by his baulks, 
or rather by the absence of them, except where preven¬ 
tion is impossible. In such cases every precaution is 
taken to keeD them from weeds, and rubbish of all 
ki BEAN. The plants that come under this designa¬ 
tion are of two species, Phaseolus and I icia. To the first 
belong the varieties of pole and bush beans usually cul¬ 
tivated in gardens; while the last, Vicia faba, is the 
bean known as the Windsor or horse bean, cultivated 
extensively in England as a field bean, and considered 
as of great value as food for animals of all kinds. In 
Europe, the bean is used, mixed either with peas or oats 
or alone, ground into meal, for feeding horses, fattening 
pork, or even as food for man. It is considered one of 
the most nutritive kinds of food ; but in this country is 
little used, corn meal being considered a preferable 
substitute to bean meal, either for man or beast. The 
prices which are obtained for the common white bean, 
would seem to render it a proper article of culture on 
light soils, where it succeeds better than on those of a 
heavier kind. / 
BEER. A liquor produced by brewing together malt, 
hops and Avater; and when properly made is a nour¬ 
ishing and wholesome drink. Beer is, hoAvever, like 
most of the other liquors of commerce and trade, adul¬ 
terated to a frightful extent by the introduction of in- 
gredients of a cheaper nature than malt or hops, if not 
absolutely noxious or poisonous in their effects on the 
system. The quantity of beer consumed by English 
laborers is astonishing; especially during harvest, when 
it is provided by the employer. The greater part of 
the barley groivn in this country as Avell as in England 
is made into beer; though the establishments for the 
manufacture here are on a small scale, compared with 
the magnificent and expensive ones of that country. If 
the good old home brewed beer, from malt and hops, 
could be substituted for strong beer or whiskey among 
the classes that consume the most of these drinks, we 
tbink the health and morals of the country would re¬ 
ceive a decided improvement. 
BEET. A common vegetable of which there are se¬ 
veral varieties, such as the scarcity and common beet 
of our gardens ; the mangel wurzel or field beet, culti¬ 
vated for cattle; and the white Siberian beet, groivn 
principally for the sugar manufacture. The mangel 
Avurzel is a valuable root, producing heavy crops, and 
being excellent food for sheep, fattening animals, and 
for milch cows. It requires a rich loam. The manu¬ 
facture of sugar from beets in its most improved state 
consists in slicing the roots thin after they are Avell 
washed, drying them thoroughly in ovens, grinding 
them to powder, and then by putting this powder into 
water, dissolving the sugar while the fibre and the mu¬ 
cilage, Avhich rendered the crystallization difficult, re¬ 
mains unchanged, and is separated from the SAveet so¬ 
lution by straining. This is then evaporated, and the 
syrup crystallized in the usual manner. Beets thus treat¬ 
ed yields from eight to ten per cent. For cooking, me¬ 
dium sized beets are to be preferred, as they are found 
to be SAveeter, and less fibrous than those of larger size. 
Unlike most other roots, beets are fit for use, as soon 
as they attain a sufficient size ; but it dees not attain 
its full perfection till October, and when wanted for 
winter use ; should stand as long as consistent with safe¬ 
ty from frost. 
BEE. (Apis mellifica, L.) A hymenopterous insect, 
of the family Apiaria, and well known as the honey 
bee. The valuable products of this insect, and its sin¬ 
gular habits and instincts, have caused it to receive 
more attention than has perhaps been given to any other, 
(unless the silk worm is excepted;) and the naturalists 
of Europe, among whom Ave may mention Reamur, 
Cuvier, and Huber, have each largely written on this 
subject. The treatise of Huber is a model of such in¬ 
vestigation and writing, and though later observation 
would seem to indicate that on some points he had been 
mistaken, still his work is likely to remain the standard 
authority in the natural history of the bee. 
There are three sorts of individuals that make up a 
community or hive of bees. The female mother, or as 
she usually is called the Queen; the males or drones , and 
the working bees. These last have been improperly 
termed neuters, since the experiments of Huber show 
they are females, and may at the pleasure of the com¬ 
munity, and by an interesting process, be converted into 
the prolific Queen of the hive. Reamur asserts that 
the female in the spring lays as many as 12,000 eggs, in 
the space of 24 days. The product of the bee is of four 
kinds: the honey, wax, pollen, and propolis. The 
honey is drawn from the flowers and undergoes little 
change as is evident from its occasionally partaking of the 
narcotic or intoxicating effects of the plants from which 
it is derived. Age usually deprives it of these noxious 
qualities. The wax is elaborated from the honey by the 
bee. It is formed betAveen the abdominal rings of the 
Avorking bees, into plates, and is used for making the 
combs. The pollen or ‘ bee bread / under different modi¬ 
fications appears to constitute a large part of the food 
of the bees and their larvae ; Avhile the propolis is used 
for lining the hives, closing unnecessary holes, &c. The 
Avorking bees, and the Queen also, secrete an active 
poison, Avhich is retained in a small bladder at the root 
of the stings, and through which it is ejected into the 
wound by pressure. The Mexicans have a bee, an ex¬ 
cellent worker, domesticated like our common bee, but 
which has no sting, and in its habits is as harmless as 
the house fly. SeA^eral attempts to introduce them into 
the United States have failed; we believe from their in¬ 
ability to endure the cold of our Avinters. Mr. Weeks 
of Vermont, has paid more attention to the bee than 
probably any other individuafin the United States; and 
he has in several valuable papers given to the public 
the result of his observations ; correcting errors into 
which others have fallen, and disclosing many new and 
valuable facts in regard to their habits and proper treat¬ 
ment. 
BEEF. Of all kinds of animal food used, it is be¬ 
lieved there is none finer flavored, more easily digested, 
or more nutritious than beef; certainly there is none more 
universally used as an article of human sustenance. 
To have beef in perfection it is necessary that the ani¬ 
mal should be well fed; that the beast should be dis¬ 
posed to take on fat at the points Avhere it is of the 
most value ; that the pasture should be clean and free 
from noxious weeds, or if stall feed, that the substances 
used for feeding should be sweet and such as will com¬ 
municate no unpleasant taste to the flesh; and finally, 
if salted, that the pickle should be carefully made, con¬ 
taining salt enough to preserve the meat perfectly sweet, 
yet not enough to harden the lean to the consistence 
and color of mahogany. Dried beef, properly prepared 
is an excellent article, and one which should be found 
among the stores of every farmer. In the tropical re¬ 
gions beef is preserved by being cut, as soon as killed, 
into thin slices and thoroughly dried in the sun. Such 
beef in the language of the country is called jerked beef. 
In some parts of the world, particularly in Abyssinia, 
beef is eaten raw. At a feast, the animal is tied to the 
door post; the flesh is cut from the living beast, is serA r ed 
to the guests, the muscles still quivering with life; and 
the more distinct this action, the more highly is the flesh 
esteemed. 
Died, recently, at Roxbury, Mass., Hen. John Loa\’- 
ell, a distinguished agriculturist. 
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