26 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
held in solution. Wheat winter kills on such soils ; on 
calcareous gravelly ones rarely. Good soils usually 
contain from 65 to 75 of silica; from 10 to 16 of alu- 
mine; from 4 to 10 of lime, and varying proportions of 
vegetable matters, animal and mineral salts, &c. The 
analysis of soils forms one of the most decided steps in 
the improvement of agriculture, as it clearly points out 
what is wanting to remedy any defect, and give ease 
of xvorking, and abundance in product. Every farmer 
should understand the nature and composition of his 
soils, and may do so, with little time, and at a mere tri¬ 
fle of expense. 
ANIMALCULJE. The microscope has opened to 
the observation of man a race of beings so small as to 
be utterly invisible to the naked eye, yet endowed with 
all the functions of vitality and perfectly organized ani¬ 
mals. Some of these are called Infusoriae, from being 
always found in water where plants are decaying, and 
some Diatoniae, but all included under the term animal- 
culee. They have long been regarded more as objects 
of mere curiosity than any thing else; but recent disco¬ 
veries seem to indicate that these minute insects have 
had an important influence in modifying the crust of 
the earth, and giving it the character it now possesses. 
Mountains of flinty rock in Silesia have been found by 
Ebrenberl to be wholly composed of the shells of ani¬ 
malcule ; and in this country masses of remains of the 
infusoriae have been found several hundred yards in ex¬ 
tent. Unlike the shells of the molusca and testacea, 
which are lime, the shells of these invisible animals are 
found to be unchanged by fire, and composed of pure 
silica. All bodies of long stagnant water, such as those 
where peat is formed, or bog earth deposited, abound 
with infusoriae; and Professor Bailey ofWest Point has 
found at the bottom of peat earth and in it, immense 
quantities of these minute remains. It is a curious fact 
that animals invisible in themselves to the eye, should 
be able in the course of centuries to form mountains, 
change the face of continents, and exert an influence by 
no means trifling on the labors and productive industry 
of man. 
ANNUAL. This term is applied, to plants that ar¬ 
rive at maturity in a single year and then perish. The 
stem of annuals is generally of rapid growth, porous, 
and abounding in the juices necessax-y to the perfection 
of the seeds in a single season. The herbage of some 
plants is annual, while the roots are perennial, or remain 
from year to year. Maize is an example of a proper 
annual ; the grasses, of perennial roots with annual 
herbage. 
APHIS. A family of insects that prey extensively on 
plants, and are endowed Avith such astonishing powers of 
reproduction, that though insignificant as individuals, 
they are formidable in their numbers, and in most years 
occasion more or less loss to the agriculturist. The con¬ 
gregations of aphides consist in spring and summer of 
apterous and wingless individuals, and of nymphse with 
undeveloped Avings. They have no mouths, but are pro¬ 
vided Avith bealc-like suckers, which they insert into 
plants, and feed on the juices. Almost every culth r ated 
plant or tree has its peculiar family of aphis ; and those 
trees or shrubs that are Avild, or found only in the depths 
of the forest, cannot claim exemption. What is called 
the apple tree louse, is an aphis; and on lifting the scale¬ 
like covering, the depredator, and its implement of suc¬ 
tion, can be seen. Another species infests the tender 
shoots of grafts, and the thrifty shoots of the apple and 
other fruit trees, and if allowed to multiply unmolested 
produces great injury. The American Blight, as it is 
called in England, or the Aphis lanata of the entomolo¬ 
gist, is a destructive species, when permitted to make a 
lodgment on the apple tree, but fortunately the cotton 
covering in which it is enveloped renders it easy to dis¬ 
cover, and thus timely put the fruit grower on his guard. 
In passing through the TonnaAvanda swamp from Lock- 
port to Batavia in 1838, the Alder, glauca, that lined the 
road was literally loaded in places with a species of 
aphis, the long cottony filaments of Avhich, erect in air, 
seemed to be Avaved at will, and simultaneously, giving 
a most singular aspect to the branches on which colo¬ 
nies Avere planted. The turnep is greatly infested with 
the aphis, as is the rose, fennel, parsley, and many other 
plants cultivated for use or ornament. The aphis, Avhile 
fixed by its sucker to the branch or the leaf, elaborates a 
SAveet honey-like fluid, clear as water, and this is pro¬ 
jected at Avill from two tubes in the hinder part of the 
body. We have seen in the sunshine, these drops fall¬ 
ing like the spray of a waterfall, from a fruit tree on 
the leaves of xvhich millions of the aphis were feeding. 
It is for this substance that colonies of the aphis are so 
frequently xdsited by the ant, which drinks the sweet 
fluid as it is thrown out by the aphis. Soapsuds, and a 
strong decoction of tobacco, hav r e been deemed most 
effectual in destroying them; though when a foothold 
is once obtained, from their rapid multiplication, exter¬ 
mination is difficult. 
APIARY. The place or building in Avhich bees are 
kept, is termed an apiary; and Avhere these industrious 
insects are kept for profit, or for observation, much care 
is sometimes taken in this department of domestic man¬ 
agement. There is no question that keeping of bees, 
may be made a source of considerable profit at very lit¬ 
tle expense, as their food costs nothing, and a residence 
is provided Avith the very hive in which they are placed. 
Moveable apiaries are common in eastern countries; 
and a long boat, Avith a hundred swarms of bees on 
board, accompanied by the owner, may be seen floating 
down the Danube, the Po, or the Nile, anchoring where 
materials for honey promise to be abundant; and moving 
onward when the district is exhausted of its sweets. 
Among farmers, too little attention is usually paid to 
the apiary ; the hives being left exposed to the storms 
and cold of winter, and the intense heat of summer, 
Avithout protection. Bees, like other domesticated crea¬ 
tures, will Avell repay care and attention. 
AQUATIC. Plants that live and flourish in the water 
are termed aquatic. There are also aquatic animals and 
birds. All our lakes, rivers, and the ocean, furnish spe¬ 
cimens of aquatic plants, some of which are of great 
use and value. A large pai't of the soda of commerce 
is obtained from a sea weed, which, drifted ashore, is 
dried and burned for the soda of the ashes. Hundreds 
of square miles in the equatorial Atlantic, at some sea¬ 
sons of the year, are covered Avith this marine vegeta¬ 
tion. Some sea weeds, as the algag, that grow as they 
float in the water, attain a length of several hundred 
feet. The rice plant of the East Indies and the Caro- 
linas, is an aquatic plant, and probably contributes as 
much to human subsistence as any plant on the globe. 
The xvild rice, Zizania aquatica, of our northern lakes 
and rivers, is of great service to the native tribes of 
those regions, feeding the immense quantities of Avater 
foAvls of all kinds that visit and breed in those inhospi¬ 
table climes, as well as furnishing food to the natives 
themselves when their usual supplies from other sources 
fail them. The flags, rushes, and other grasses that 
grow in the Avaters of the lakes, or other quiet waters, 
the pond lily, &c., are further examples of aquatic 
plants. 
ARGILLACEOUS. A teim applied to soils in which 
clay forms a principal ingredient. It Avas derived from 
argil or clayey, as aluminous from alumine. In agri¬ 
culture, argillaceous and aluminous are Avords of the 
same import, and mean soils or earth in Avhich clay 
predominates. “ Analysis” shoxvs how the proportion 
can be determined. 
ARTESIAN. A kind of well made by boring through 
the successive sti’ata of the earth until Avater is found. 
This name is derived from Artois in France, Avhere the 
system of boring was first successfully adopted. By 
penetrating the rocky crust of earth in this way, the 
Avater frequently rises to the surface, and Aoavs a living 
stream; in other cases it rises so as to be obtained with¬ 
out difficulty. In this country Avells have been bored 
to the depth of a thousand feet, and those of 500 or 700 
are not uncommon. Various products are obtained from 
the earth in this Avay. In Albany, a valuable minex-al 
spring has been reached by boring. The great quanti¬ 
ties of water at the KenhaAva salines are obtained from 
Artesian wells. Springs of carbonated hydrogen, that 
burn with a perpetual flame ; and immense reservoirs 
of petroleum, (the Seneca oil of commerce,) have been 
discovered while boring for salt or for fresh water. Arte¬ 
sian Avells have been sunk in the deserts between Cairo 
and Suez, and abundant supplies of water obtained; 
and Avherever the borings have been properly and per- 
severingly conducted, either in this or foreign countries, 
Avater has usually been procured. 
ARTICHOKE. Tavo plants of this name are cultiva¬ 
ted for food; the first Cyanara scolymus , is chiefly culti¬ 
vated in Europe for culinary purposes. The part that 
is eaten is the receptacle of the floAver, divested of the 
unopened florets, and the bristles that separate them. 
The head thus prepared is boiled plain and eaten with 
melted butter and pepper, and is deemed wholesome and 
nutritious. These bottoms, as they are termed, are also 
made into a variety of dishes, steAved and highly season¬ 
ed. The other plant, is the one known as the Jei-usalem 
artichoke, Helianthus tuberosus, and is cultivated for the 
root alone. It is a species of sunfloAver, grows Avild in 
several parts of South America, and the root is potatoe 
shaped. The roots are valuable as a food for animals, 
and are not unpalatable to man. They are found in 
most of our gardens, an improper place for them, as 
they are apt to spread, and are somewhat difficult to 
eradicate. In this country, feAV attempts have been 
made at their field culture, but those have been profita¬ 
ble. In highly cultivated grounds in England and Hol¬ 
land, they have been found extremely productive, 70 or 
80 tons of the roots having been gathered from a single 
acre. Their flavor is much like that of the former arti¬ 
choke, Avlien boiled and prepared for the table; and they 
are A r ery xmluable for feeding hogs and store pigs. 
ASHES. When wood is burned in a position that 
excludes the aii-, the product is coal; if combustion is 
performed in the open air, the produce is ashes. Ashes 
by being leached, or having wai-m Avater passed through 
them, are deprived of the alkali they contain, and this 
is obtained in the shape of potash, or soda, by evapora¬ 
tion. Different Avoods, and plants, vary much in the 
quantity of ashes and alkali they produce; the fir, 
beech and poplar, ranking the loAvest; and the box, 
Avillow, elm, wormAvood, and fumitory, the highest. 
The leached ashes of several kinds of grain, were 
found, by Ruckert, to be constituted as follows: 
Silica. 
Lime. 
Alumine. 
Ashes of Wheat,. 
...48 
37 
15 
“ Oats,. 
...63 
26 
6 
“ Barley, .... 
...69 
16 
15 
Rye,. 
...63 
21 
16 
“ Potatoes,... 
... 4 
66 
30 
“ Red Clover, 
.. .37 
33 
30 
Leached ashes are found to be an excellent manure 
applied to soils that are light, or such as are inclining 
to be sour; the alkali correcting the acid Avith which 
such soils, as the vegetation proves, abound. In some 
instances, crops of grain, roots, and grass, have been 
nearly doubled by their use; and no skilful agricultu¬ 
rist permits their Avaste. 
ASPARAGUS. A plant cultivated in gardens, and 
deservedly esteemed for its value as an article of food, 
Avhen properly prepared. Its value is also greatly en¬ 
hanced by the early season at which it is produced. It 
is the young shoots of the plant, as they attain the height 
of some four or six inches above the earth, that are 
used for food, and these are cut slanting upAvards, about 
tAvo inches beloAV the surface. Asparagus is usually 
grown in beds, and requires a soil A r ery rich and deep, 
and if not so naturally, it must be made so by trench¬ 
ing and manuring Avith fine manure or compost, before 
the plants, Avhich are raised from the seed, are put into 
it. They may be set in toavs eighteen inches distance, 
and ten inches in the row, or in squares at one foot dis¬ 
tance. The beds during the winter are secured from 
frost, and the plants prepared for an early start, by a 
coAmring of straw or litter. The beds must be loosened 
in the spring, and a coating of mould, saturated Avith 
liquid manure, Avoi'ked in, has been found a capital 
dressing. A few plants are not cut, but reserved for 
seed, to keep a supply of the young plants, for beds. 
In a favoi-able soil, an asparagus bed Avhen established, 
and properly attended to, Avill last many years. The 
plants are usually alloxved to stand three years before 
they are cut; some, however, commence on them the 
second year. They are boiled and eaten with butter, 
as are green peas, &c. The asparagus offers a striking 
instance of the effect produced on plants by cultivation. 
In some parts of Europe it is found growing wild on 
the sea shore, its stem not thicker than a goose quill, 
and only a few inches in height. The cultivated plant 
is sometimes found three-fourths of an inch in diameter, 
and grows to six feet in height. In the neighborhcod of 
cities or villages asparagus is cultivated as a source of 
great profit; and it should find a place in every kitchen 
garden. 
Improvement of our Cattle. 
We feel pleasure in giving place to the “Essay on 
Cattle,” written by a gentleman Avho has not only taken 
much pains to inform himself fully on the subject of 
which he treats, but has also added considerable expe¬ 
rience to the knoAvledge so gained. Those who re¬ 
member the able paper of Mr. R. read before the State 
Agricultural Society, on the subject of Sheep, and pub¬ 
lished in the last volume of the Cultivator, xvill welcome 
the present paper on a kindred theme. 
We agree, in the main, with the opinions of Mr. R. 
and think the course recommended by him the only one 
that can be relied on for the improvement of our stock. 
It is alleged, and with some appearance of truth, that 
the pure Durhams are rather delicate for our climate 
and pastures; but a cross between them and our native 
breeds, would, as experience has shown, give a breed of 
good form, and hardier qualities. 
In the impropriety of going beyond a first cross, we 
fully agree Avith Mr. R. Within a few years, the pub¬ 
lic attention abroad, particularly in Scotland, has been 
turned to the effect of proceeding beyond a first cross 
in breeding, and the result is, that the practice has re¬ 
ceived the most unequivocal condemnation. At the last 
meeting of the Scotch Highland Agricultural Society, 
embracing the most skilful and influential breeders of 
the country, there seemed to be but one opinion on this 
point; and that Avas decidedly against the practice. 
Our whole observation and experience, goes to confirm 
us in the correctness of this opinion; and while we 
Avould strenuously urge upon farmers the necessity of 
improving their stock, we would insist on the fallacy of 
supposing such a result is to ensue from breeding from 
the first, second, or third cross, alone. The progeny in 
these cases may be good, but cannot be counted upon 
with any certainty. They are more likely to show the 
bad qualities, than the good ones, of their respective 
races; and experience has shown that to breed in this 
Avay, Avill surely deteriorate any breed or breeds. On 
our flocks and our herds much is depending. So far as 
animals are concerned, our sources of wealth are con¬ 
fined to cattle, sheep, horses, and SAvine ; and the means 
of improving these should be xvatched Avith a corres¬ 
ponding care and anxiety. 
Iron Manufacture. 
There are feAV branches of the arts so closely con¬ 
nected with the progress of agriculture, as the making 
of iron, and any measures that shall facilitate the manu¬ 
facture, or increase the quantity, will in the same ratio 
add to the means of improv'ement in the cultivation of 
the soil. One of the most serious inconA'eniences the 
American farmer has to encounter, is the want of the 
proper implements, and this want is in the main occa¬ 
sioned by the prices and scarcity of iron in the country, 
a want not experienced in foreign countries, as the ex¬ 
tent to Avhich iron is used in the construction of their 
implements fully proves. 
That there is no part of the world more rich in iron 
ores than the United States, particularly some parts of 
New-York, New-Jersey and Pennsylvania,^ well known 
to those who have paid attention to the geological re¬ 
searches that have been made in these states; and in 
Pennsylvania these ores are in the immediate vicinity 
of the most extensive and easily worked coal mines on 
the globe. The cost of charcoal has hitherto prevented 
the use of these ores, except in a very limited manner, 
and until the past year, all efforts to use the anthracite 
or mineral coal in their reduction has proved abortive. 
Mr. Crane had, after many trials, established an anthra¬ 
cite furnace in Wales, and Mr. Perry of Pennsyl- 
