118 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
THE PLOW AMD ITS USE. 
In no one thing has the striking advance of what 
may be termed the mechanics of agriculture, or the 
manufacture of farming implements, within the last 
twenty years, been more fully shown, than in that most 
important article of husbandry, the plow. When we 
compare the present beautiful, light, and yet strong, 
plows, in general use, with the clumsy, heavy, ill-con¬ 
structed implements used twenty or thirty years since, 
it is impossible to deny, that in this respect at least, 
a great improvement in the means of good farming 
has been effected. Some twenty years since, a gen¬ 
tleman of Massachusetts, convinced of the inefficien¬ 
cy of the common plow, ordered from England a new 
plow, which was highly spoken of, but on its arri¬ 
val, found it such a huge, clumsy,. heavy combination 
of wood and iron, that, after various unsuccessful at¬ 
tempts at use, he was obliged to lay it by, it requiring 
more team and hands to manage it, than even the ordi¬ 
nary Bull plow of New-England, to which he had 
been accustomed. Wood, about this time, invented the 
cast iron plow, and this discovery, in the hands of skil¬ 
ful and scientific men and good mechanics, has effected 
a total revolution in the qualities and construction of 
that implement. 
It is somewhat singular that, to the celebrated au¬ 
thor of the Declaration of Independence, this country 
also owes the first theory of the plow, formed on cor¬ 
rect philosophical and mathematical principles. In or¬ 
der to test the correctness of his theory, at the sugges¬ 
tion of Jefferson, Mr. Smith of Pennsylvania, in 1803, 
made the first cast iron moldboard, as a substitute for 
the wooden one hitherto used. It succeeded, and this 
had a direct tendency to do away the awkward wedge¬ 
like form of the old plow; and this formed the first 
step, which has led to the simple yet beautiful applica- 
tiomof power, shown in the present improved cast iron 
plow. The land side, and the point, were successively 
added, thus securing ease of working, with great strength 
and durability. We well remember the first cast iron 
plow that fell under our notice, (and it was one of 
Wood’s earliest invention,) and so associated with brit¬ 
tleness and fragility were all our ideas of cast iron, that 
we should not have deemed it worth an hour’s purchase 
in any field, other than the cleanest and best. Experi- 
ence, however, showed the fallacy of such impressions; 
patent after patent was taken out for what were deem¬ 
ed improvements, and each new plow received a fair 
share of public favor and patronage. 
It would be somewhat amusing, and certainly instruc¬ 
tive, to trace the history of this implement from the ear¬ 
liest notice it has received, or its earliest delineations 
on the coins and sculptures of antiquity, down to the 
present day. The plow of the ancients, and the teams 
used, were of the simplest kind. The top of a tree, of 
which one branch constituted the handle; an opposite 
one, shortened and sharpened, was the plow proper; 
and the main stem, trimmed of its superfluous branches, 
anl cut off at the proper length, constituted the beam. 
Asses or heifers formed the teams, when society had so 
far advanced as to substitute animal for human labor. 
Before that, men, or more frequently, women, drew as 
well as held the plow; and so slow were changes on do¬ 
mestic matters in the east, that Pliny speaks of seeing, 
in Africa, fields that produced most luxuriantly, worked 
by an implement like the above, to which was yoked an 
ass and an old woman. In some parts of the eastern 
world, the plow still used, is not much superior to the 
primitive one, though a piece of iron is sometimes tied 
to the under branch that penetrates the ground, and 
bullocks are in some places used to draw it; the plow- 
used by the Polish peasantry is of this kind, and in 
Africa, a sharpened stick, or a wooden paddle, consti¬ 
tutes the implement used for stirring the earth prepa¬ 
ratory to a crop. 
We do not intimate that the plow, even the best kind, 
can be considered as having reached its limits of per¬ 
fection. With that implement, as with other things, 
one decided improvement serves only to suggest ano¬ 
ther. The changes in material pointed to changes in 
structure; and instead of the blunt, w-edgelike form of 
the old plow, a tapering, lifting form has been given, 
which, penetrating the earth easily, and reversing it 
readily, dispenses with much of the force formerly re¬ 
quired to move it, while at the same time the work is 
done in a manner to which the old plow could make but 
faint approaches. The effect of early habits is still to 
be seen in our plows, though not to the extent it for¬ 
merly was. In the early settlement of any wooded 
country, knolls made by the turning up of the former 
forest trees, will abound, giving an unevenness to the 
surface, requiring several plowings to remove. On such 
lands, none but plows with short beams and nearly up¬ 
right handles, can be used to advantage; and such is 
the character of the plow in all new countries. Plow-s 
of this description do not run as easy, and require more 
labor in the holding, than those made with larger beams, 
and a corresponding increase in the length of the share 
and point. A well constructed plow- has its under sur¬ 
face running parallel with the surface of the soil, no 
matter w-ha{ may be the depth plowed ; but when con¬ 
structed in such a way that the plow is continually on 
its heel, or its point, the plowman finds hard work, and 
the work itself must be imperfectly performed. Every 
one who plows, is aware that on the same soils, one 
plow will run so true and steady as to require scarce an 
effort to guide it, while another demands constant atten¬ 
tion and effoi-t; and he also knows that in most eases, 
the easiest running plow- will be the one with the larg¬ 
est exposed surface, and handles of the greatest incli¬ 
nation; and the reasons for this are so evident, as not 
to require elucidation. 
Farmers have been considerably divided in opinion 
on two points connected with plow-s, or rather with 
plowing; one of these regarding the manner in which 
the lurrow slice should be turned over; and the other, 
the depth to which land should be plow-ed. Some have 
contended that the furrow slice should never be laid flat, 
but always in such an inclined position, that the edge 
of one slice should just rest on the next one, leaving un¬ 
der the edge so raised, a vacancy nearly as deep as the 
thickness of the furrow slice. This, it is contended, is 
advantageous, by hastening decomposition, and by al¬ 
lowing w-ater to pass freely off without injury to young- 
plants, Other farmers maintain as strenuously that the 
furrow slice should in all cases be laid perfectly flat, or 
reversed in such a manner that a field after plowing 
should be as level as before, the plow simply reversing 
the surface of the slice. In this, as in a majority of con¬ 
troverted points, our experience and observation leads 
us to conclude that both sides are partly right, and both 
partly wrong. We have found that, if on lands strong 
and with a tenacious or impervious subsoil, which re 
tained for some time what water fell upon it, the furrow- 
slice w-as slightly lapped, so as to leave a space below-, 
young plants suffered less from a wet season, or an un¬ 
due accumulation of water, than they would if the fur¬ 
row slice was fully inverted, and the surface made 
smooth and even. On the contrary, we have been led 
to believe that on a light soil, or one inclining to be dry 
or porous, it w-as better to invert the surface complete¬ 
ly, and by rolling, render the surface smooth, and its 
particles as compact as possible. A surface so treated, 
will retain its moisture longer than if left in a state more 
loose and friable, and the conducting pow-er will be in¬ 
creased by the particles being brought more closely in 
contact. Let the farmer, then, whose subsoil is imper¬ 
meable to water, lay his furrows as dipping as he 
pleases ; the more space below, the better for him ; but 
on a light porous soil, lay the surface flat, and make it 
as dense as it well can be. The benefit, which com¬ 
pressing sandy soils confers, is well understood in-Nor¬ 
folk, in England, where the treading of the sheep in 
feeding the turneps in the field, is considered not the 
least beneficial part of the culture required for the pro¬ 
duction of w-heat. 
Nearly the same remarks may be applied to the other 
controverted point, viz : that which relates to the depth 
of plowing. The propriety or impropriety of deep plow¬ 
ing must be determined by the soil itself; by its condi¬ 
tion, in reference to a supply of vegetable matter in the 
soil, and the depth to which it has been formerly plow¬ 
ed. Where the stratum of fertile soil is thin, and the 
subsoil, no matter from w-hat cause, incapable of pro¬ 
moting vegetation, it is bad policy to bring this infertile 
subsoil to the surface, as a stratum in w-hich seeds are 
to germinate. And w-here the soil is permeable to the 
depth of tw-elve or eighteen inches, or as low as the 
plow can penetrate, and is filled with fertilizing mate¬ 
rials, deposited by the processes of nature, or by ma¬ 
nure applied to the surface in cultivation, then the plow 
may run deep w-ithout fear of injury to the present crop, 
and the certainty of benefit to the future ones. We think 
the true method of rendering any soil deep and fertile, 
is to plow- no deeper, and bring up no mere of the in¬ 
fertile earth at a time to the surface, than can be tho¬ 
roughly corrected by manures, to be incorporated with 
it, and thus made friable and productive. At each suc¬ 
cessive plowing, if this course is followed, the soil will 
be gradually deepened and rendered productive to an, 
desired depth. By pursuing this course of manuring 
and plowing, Judge Powell rendered his soils fertile to 
the depth of fourteen inches, and where the roots of 
plants have this depth of good earth to range in and 
seek their food, the farmer can hardly fail of securing 
first rate crops. Every part of a soil so prepared, i 
fit for the germination of seeds to the lowest depth to 
which the plow can reach; and the more thorough the 
plowing is given, the greater will be the surface exposed 
to the benefits of seralion, or the ameliorating influences 
of the atmosphere. One of the greatest differences be¬ 
tween the old and the new husbandry, depends on thi - 
question of plowing. In the old mode, the plow was 
used year after year to the same depth, and the manure 
applied with reference to the crop solely, while the im¬ 
provement of the soil was wholly left out of sight. As 
a natural consequence, “ there was no depth of soil,” 
and when manure failed, the fertility of the land was 
gone, with scarcely a possibility of renovation under 
such a process. In the new husbandry, the permanent 
improvement of the soil, by gradual manuring and 
deepening, is kept steadily in view; and hence the ac¬ 
cumulation and use of manures has received an addi¬ 
tional importance. The garden is usually far the most 
fertile part of the farm, and this is brought about by the 
gradual incorporation of manures with the subsoil raised 
at each successive plowing, until the requisite depth 
and fertility is gained. On lands long plowed fo a uni¬ 
form depth, as they were under the old system, the 
pressure of the plow on the same surface, gradually 
formed an impenetrable strata, thus forming a fatal ob 
structic n to the roots of plants, where it did not natu¬ 
rally exist. In England, on soils inclining to clay, and 
which have been under the plow occasionally-, or al¬ 
most perpetually for centuries, this impermeable pan is 
common, and one of the most decided advantages found 
to result from the subsoil plow, is the breaking up and 
demolition of this artificial obstruction to the spread 
and depth of the roots of plants. On the old cultivated 
fields of New-England, the same difficulty exists more 
or less, and can be removed, and the soil rendered fer¬ 
tile by the same means so successful abroad. 
The too frequent plowing of land is not to be recom¬ 
mended in any case, and unless absolutely required to 
destroy foul weeds, it should receive no further moving 
than is requisite to fit it for a crop. The great mistake 
of Tull, w r as, that plowing or pulverization would su¬ 
persede the use of manuring. But experience shows, 
what indeed philosophy inculcates, that beyond a cer¬ 
tain point, plowing is injurious; and that, though es¬ 
sential benefits are derived to the soil from the action 
of atmospheric agents, manuring in some form, is in¬ 
dispensable to successful farming. It may be said that 
an application of manure should take place every time 
land is plowed and cropped. On land that has been 
brought to a high state of fertility, the decomposition of 
the rich sward will usualy prove a sufficient dressing for 
a single crop; but for a repetition or rotation of crops, 
manures cannot be withheld without a certain deterio¬ 
ration of the soil, and a probable lessening of the crop. 
Plowing and manuring must go together, and without 
this combination, each will be found defective and in¬ 
capable of producing such results as are certain to en¬ 
sue when both' separate processes are skilfully united. 
We are therefore disposed to consider every decided im¬ 
provement in the plow, as a sure indication of progress 
in agriculture ; a proof that another step in the correc¬ 
tion and dissipation of ancient error has been gained ; 
and the way opened and the means provided for still 
farther and more important advances. 
CEMENTS. 
The use of mortars and cements, in the construction 
of our public works; in the erection of public and pri¬ 
vate edifices ; in the making of cisterns and aqueducts, 
and for other purposes, has become an object of state 
and national importance, and deserves the attention of 
the chemist and the engineer in a greater degree than 
it has yet received. By the use of bad materials, this 
state has sufi’ered already from the premature decay of 
its structures on the Erie and other canals, a loss we 
may say of millions ; and there is no reason to suppose 
but that throughout the country the loss from the same 
cause has been in full proportion to ours. The state of 
our aqueducts, locks, and culverts, on our canals; the 
tumbling down of long ranges of brick buildings in our 
cities, while the process of erection is going on, or im¬ 
mediately after their completion; all prove that our 
mortars and cements have been miserably made, and 
without that knowledge of the nature of the materials 
used, indispensable to success. We are glad, therefore, 
to see our civil and military engineers turning their at¬ 
tention to this point, and detecting the causes that have 
led to such results. Among those who have furnished 
their quota of intelligence, we may mention H. S. 
Dexter, in his late Report to the Canal Commissioners 
on this subject; and Col. Totten of the U. S. Engineers, 
in several valuable reports, and statements of experi¬ 
ments. 
The structures of the ancients were -of two kinds, 
one in which the materials were kept in their place by 
their weight, as in the walls of Tyrinthus, and the ruins 
of Baalbec: the other in which cement was used, as in 
the walls of Babylon, and the greater part of the 
pyramids in Egypt. Two kinds of mortar or cement 
were used, that of the xvalls of Babylon being the as- 
phaltum, now extensively used in the construction of 
pavements in cities, &c. and the other, mortar made of 
lime and other materials. It was for a long time sup¬ 
posed that the ancient mortar contained ingredients 
unknown to the moderns, and to which its superior 
hardness was to be attributed ; but chemical analysis 
has show-n this to be an error, and that the constituents 
of the Roman mortar or cement are the same we are 
in the habit of using, and that its conversion into stone, 
must be considered partly as the work of time, but 
more as the result of greater skill in the preparation. 
Hydraulic or water limestone is the basis of all grcd 
cement; and fortunately this state is furnished with an 
abundant supply of the best quality, although it is 
evident there has not always been care enough token 
in selecting the materials used in the preparation. 
Onondaga, Madison, and Ulster counties have inex¬ 
haustible quarries of this stone, and vast quantities are 
now annually prepared for market. The Cl iltenango 
works alone afford more than a hundred thousand 
barrels yearly, and the Ulster w-orks furnish about 
500,000 in the same time. The stone is found in layers 
of 4 or 5 feet in thickness, between strata of the common 
limestone ; is burned in kilns, requiring from 60 to 90 
hours for its calcination, and is then broken up and 
ground in mills to fit it for use, as this stone will not 
slake after burning, like common lime. 
The great cause of the failures of cement to set, and 
consequently the inferior nature of the mortar, appears 
to lie in tw-o things: the first arises from the age of the 
cement; and the" other, the quantity or quality of the 
sand used. If cement is left for any time after being 
ground, it deteriorates rapidly, and scon becomes unfit 
fo make good cement. This result, which would seem 
to be owing to the reabsorption of the carbonic, gas, 
expelled by the first burning, Mr. Dexter has disco¬ 
vered may be obviated by calcining cement that has 
been injured by age, a second time, immediately before 
using it. This is important, and should ahvays be at¬ 
tended to, when there is reason to suspect the quality 
of the cement. The other cause of poor mortar, the 
