PHK CULTIVATOR. 
DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
Used in Agriculture and its Kindred Sciences. 
FOLIAGE. The leaves of trees and plants exercise 
a most important part in promoting their growth ; and 
the functions they perform, have several analogies in 
the human system. In the leaf, the ascending sap un¬ 
dergoes the changes that fit it for the formation of wood 
or fruit; it there undergoes the process of aeration, and 
receives the carbon, which in the form of lignin or wood, 
constitutes the main structure of the plant. According 
to Ro<mt, the ascending sap loses two-thirds of its quan¬ 
tity in the leaves by 7 exhalation, and one-third remains 
to nourish the plant. The part thus evaporated is per¬ 
fectly pure, all the foreign materials contained in the 
ascending sap remaining in the part retained, fhe 
quantity of sap exhaled in a given time, depends m a 
great measure on the intensity oi the light to which the 
leaf is exposed. A large portion of tne sap not exha¬ 
led in the leaf is actually decomposed, and its separate 
elements, the oxygen and the hydrogen, are combined 
with certain proportions of carbon, nitrogen and various 
earths, metals and salts, which form the proximate 
vegetable products found in the returning sap. It was 
Dr! Priestly that made the important discovery that the 
leaves of plants give out oxygen gas during the day 
time, which could only be done by the decomposition of 
carbonic gas, in which process the carbon goes to form 
the plant, and the oxygen to renew the waste made by 
the respiration of animated nature. Leaves then, are 
the lungs of plants ; and. it is in the green substance of 
them only that these changes are performed. Strip a 
flourishing tree of its leaves, and its growth is checked 
at once, its fruit ceases to ripen, and a repetition pro¬ 
duces death. This is frequently seen in the case of 
plum trees, which in favorable seasons for fruit, some¬ 
times suffer a premature fall of the leal, in which case 
the fruit never comes to perfection, but remains imma¬ 
ture and worthless. 
FOOD. The substances taken into the stomach to 
support life in the man or animal. The proper supply 
of food and its quality, is one of the most important 
subjects that come under consideration. If it contain 
too much nutriment it clogs and overloads the digestive 
organs, and is productive of a formidable class of disea¬ 
ses • if deficient in nutriment, the muscles become soft 
and flabby, the strength fails, and if long continued, 
emaciation and death ensues. The food, then, to pro¬ 
duce its proper effect must possess two conditions ; one 
is, that of sufficient bulk to keep the stomach properly 
distended, without which its functions are impeded ; anc 
the other, that of sufficient nutriment or substance that 
can be converted into chyle and appropriated to the re¬ 
pair of wear and tear of the system. I he best food for 
man or for animals, is that in which these conditions 
are best united. Thus some kinds of grain are unfit for 
the horse, given alone, as they contain too much nutri¬ 
ment in proportion to their bulk, and are apt to render 
a horse feverish and diseased. Wheat and barley are 
not as good feed for a horse as oats, because in the lat¬ 
ter, the proper proportion of nutriment and bulk is 
nearest obtained. A smaller quantity of wheat or bar¬ 
ley with sufficient cut straw or hay to make the equiva¬ 
lent of bulk, would probably render one as.good as the 
other. Indian corn alone has too much nutriment in 
proportion to its bulk for the horse ; but fed with cut 
straw, it is one of the best, as thousands know by expe¬ 
rience. Pure wheat flour has too much nutriment for 
the health of man ; and experience shows that fine flour 
and fat meat are to man what a diet of wheat and sugar 
is to the horse. The bran of wheat however, is defi- 
cient in nutriment, and unfit for the purpose of subsist¬ 
ence. Plain, common food, in which the extremes of 
bulk and nutrition are avoided, is doubtless the most 
conducive to health, and those that subsist upon such, 
are the best able to labor, or endure severe exercise. 
Much of the value of food is depending on the ease 
with which it can be digested, and applied to the pur¬ 
poses of nutrition, and the experiments of Dr. Beau¬ 
mont on the living stomach, furnish the best guide in 
this respect that can be found. The following table is 
copied from a long list of substances experimented upon 
by him, giving the time required for the digestion of 
the substances named: 
Article. 
Boiled rice,. 
Sago,tapioca,barley and 
sustained. It has not as yet become common m this 
country but cases have occurred to show its existence 
among us, and the introduction of foreign sheep may 
not be without its influence in the spread of the disor¬ 
der Its first symptoms are a slight lameness, accom¬ 
panied with fever, which is succeeded by a swelling 
about the heel or between the toes, followed by a sup¬ 
puration and loosening of the hoof. If n ot cl ^ked, the 
hoof falls off, and the sheep is obliged to walk on its 
knees to feed, but it most usually perishes from the 
complaint and emaciation before it reaches that state. 
In its appearance and effects it much resembles the 
hoof ail which is occasionally so fatal among cattle, m 
some parts of the United Slates. The foot rot rarely 
occurs where sheep are fed on dry hard soils, or on 
short pastures. It most commonly makes its appear¬ 
ance in flocks fed on rich soft pastures or meadows, 
where abundance of food is procured with little exertion, 
and particularly so, if the meadow or pasture is moist 
and damp. Doubts have existed as to its contagious- 
ness but the general opinion seems to be that the treacl¬ 
ing of sheep on matter from an infected foot ? when the 
sound foot is softened by moisture, or when cracks ex¬ 
ist in the hoof, will produce the complaint. When the 
disease is discovered, the flock should be immediately 
removed to dry hard pasture, and if compelled to 
“ work for their living” for a while, the effect will be 
<mod. The hoof must be pared around the infected pla¬ 
ces taking care not to wound the sensible paits, and 
what is called the foot ointment laid on every part, 
which may be effected with a feather. Some practice 
covering a spot with fine quicklime, on which the sheep 
is obliged to stand for a few hours. Perfect dryness ol 
the feet seems essential to a cure. 
The following composition has become celebrated m 
England and Scotland, for this disease. “ Corrosive 
sublimate one ounce; blue vitriol two ounces; verdi¬ 
gris two ounces; white copperas four ounces, dissolved 
fn half a bottle of white wine vinegar, and apply it with 
a feather.” In addition to this, Mr. Laidlaw used a 
mixture of tar and common salt with much success, es¬ 
pecially in moist or damp weather. Mr. Dick attri¬ 
butes the disease to want of action in the animal, and 
by living on soft, rich ground, having the homy part ol 
the hoof overgrown and pressing on the tender parts, a 
result not likely to happen where dry hard ground, 
or short feed, is found in sheep walks. 
FOUNDER. When after severe traveling, violent 
exercise, or hard work, a horse before he has time to 
cool is allowed to stand with his feet in cold water, or 
drink his fill of cold water, the sudden change ol tem¬ 
perature produced, is apt to produce acute inflammation 
of the lungs or the feet, oftener the last. The earliest 
symptoms are uneasiness, frequent moving the fore feet, 
but rarely pawing or striking at the belly with the hind 
feet, as in bots, colic, &c. ; as the pain in the feet in¬ 
creases, he frequently places his nose on his feet, or 
looks at them, and finally, as if unable to support Ins 
weio-ht, lies down quietly, or sometimes stands until he 
falls. Sometimes, but very rarely, a change of tempe¬ 
rature from a cold air to a warm stable, will produce an 
inflammation similar to the other cause, and result in 
acute founder. Fever, induced from excess of grain, al¬ 
so occasionally produces founder, and from ^vhatever 
cause the fever arises, the treatment must be the same, 
as, if unchecked, the worst consequences ensue. On ex¬ 
amination, the feet will be found very hot, and a vio¬ 
lent pulsation of the pastern artery can be felt. He will 
soon be unable to walk ; as the fever progresses he re¬ 
fuses to stand, and if the disease is not relieved, the 
hoof will be lost. It is true a new hoof may grow, but 
- 11 1 1 _ .. .1 _I-, s\ 
it will be smaller and weaker, and never be fit for se 
h. m. 
Article. 
h. in. 
1 
Veal... 
4 
Wheat bread, fresh ba- 
2 15 
ked,. 
3 30 
1 
Corn bread,. 
3 15 
2 30 
Sponge cake,. 
2 30 
3 30 
Sue calash,. 
3 45 
3 
Apple dumpling,. 
3 
2 45 
Apples sour and mellow, 
2 
1 30 
“ sweet and “ 
1 30 
3 
Parsneps boiled, ...... 
2 30 
3 
Potatoes “ . 
3 30 
3 30 
“ roasted,. 
2 30 
2 30 
Raw cabbage,. 
2 30 
4 30 
Raw with vinegar, • •.. 
2 
3 
Cabbage boiled,. 
4 30 
3 15 
Tripe and pig’s feet,... 
Fowls, beef’s liver,. • • • 
Hard eggs,. 
Soft “ . 
Custard, ■••••••• . 
Trout, boiled or fried,.. 
Other fresh fish,. 
Beef, rare roasted,..... 
Dry roasted,. 
Salt beef with mustard, 
Pickled pork,. 
Raw pork,. 
Mutton, fresh,. 
If food is made fine when taken into the stomach, or 
cooked, the nutritive power is much increased. This 
principle is of great importance in the fattening of ani¬ 
mals, and shows the benefit derived from cooking or 
even grinding the materials on which farmers feed their 
stock, and especially their fattening animals. 
FOOT R.OT. This is a formi Sable disease of sheep 
by which great losses to the sheep grower are at times 
vere work. 
The first thing to be done is to reduce the inflamma¬ 
tion. Bleeding is here most to be relied on. If the dis¬ 
ease is confined to the fore feet, four quarts of blood 
should he taken as soon as possible from the toe of 
each. Poultices of linseed meal made soft, should cover 
the whole of the foot and the pastern, which will have 
a tendency when frequently renewed, to soften the 
parts and relieve the painful pressure. Medicines pro¬ 
per in fevers, should also be administered, of which 
digitalis and nitre are the most sedative and cooling. 
If the fever in the foot remains high, a second bleeding 
is justifiable, and cloths wet in a solution of nitre may 
be applied. If the fever can he removed before suppu¬ 
ration, or the parting of the hoof at the coronet takes 
place, there is hope of saving it, and a speedy cure may 
be anticipated ; if this is not done, the cure will be 
doubtful and protracted. 
FREE MARTIN. When a cow has two calves, one 
a hull, and the other in appearance a heifer, the last is 
termed a free martin. Such a heifer is unfit for the pro¬ 
pagation of the species, being barren, while the bull 
calf will be as serviceable as any. When grown, the 
free martin is to appearance a cow, exhibits sexual in¬ 
clinations, and has been known to receive the male, hut 
except in very rare cases without efiect. The cause of 
the barrenness was found by the celebrated John Hun¬ 
ter (who dissected several for the purpose) to lie in a 
peculiar vaginal and uterine organization, which in ef¬ 
fect constituted the animal a hermaphrodite, and effect¬ 
ually prevented conception. Dr. Allnott of London 
has also recently dissected several, and arrived at the 
same conclusion. In the few instances on record where 
free martins have bred, the female has preponderated 
so much over the male as to render procreation possi¬ 
ble. The barenness of the twin female is a singular 
anomaly, and confined so far as appears to cattle, as all 
47 
other female twins are as prolific as others. It is sin¬ 
gular that the ancient Romans should have applied the 
Sme of taura to a twin heifer thus gatingt that jhe 
imssessed in part the nature ol a male. Fiee martins 
work well in the yoke, are strong and land workers to¬ 
gether or with an ox. Unlike the spayed heifei, 
the free martin is particularly on the alert when the 
cows areTfiseason. A curious account of the internal 
organization of the free martin may he found in the Phi- 
Sphical ^ransactions, and in an ahrxdged form, in 
Youatt’s English Cattle. 
FRFEZING. The freezing point of the thermome¬ 
ter is 32° and when water, or the sap of plants, are 
cooled below that, they become solid or freeze. All 
fluids expand in freezing or crystalization and on tms 
fact the effect of frost on plants , or on the earth m mam 
ly depending. All vital organization has a tendency 
resist frost; hence a thermometer P^ed m * living 
tree indicates a greater temperature under the sa 
circumstances than vn a dead one , and y 
knows that dead flesh freezes sooner tharthatwhichis 
living. Plants are frequently destroyed by frost, when 
overtaken by it while in the vigor ol growth as the ex¬ 
pansion of the juices in that state hursts the tender ves- 
K& death ensues. If the wood of the tree Of plant 
has ripened, that is if the juices have performed their 
functions, and been converted by the leaves into the 
substances that go to make lignin, (see foliage,) the 
freezing produces little or no injury. In that condition 
the plant is in a state of hybernation, and its circula¬ 
tion and vitality are mostly dormant, l he series of ex¬ 
periments entered upon by Professor Lmdley of the 
London Horticultural Society, and conducted with great 
skill, to ascertain the effects of frost on plants led to 
some interesting and valuable results. One oi them 
was that of a great variety of American plants ana 
trees cultivated in the gardens ol the Society, those 
from the northern part of the United States were much 
more frequently destroyed in the temperature ol Lon¬ 
don than those from the southern part ; a result ex¬ 
plained by the fact, that the diminished temperature re¬ 
tarded the circulation and aided the ripening ol tne 
wood in plants from a warmer climate, while the in¬ 
creased temperature kept the plants from a northein 
climate in a state of growth too late for the wood to ri¬ 
pen. Thus flowers kept in pots in a chamber are more 
liable to be killed at night, if the temperature ol the 
room during the day is much elevated. Thus too, trees 
which are on a dry poor soil are less liable to be killed, 
by frost, than those grown on a rich warm moist soil, 
as the growth of the latter is prolonged to a latei per.^u 
of the year, and their ability to resist frost consequent¬ 
ly diminished. 
The freezing of wheat, however, causes more loss to 
the farmer and the country, than all the other losses 
from frost combined. When a soil is tenacious, oi con¬ 
tains a large proportion of clay, and by its position co- 
want of drainage abounds in water, as such soils usual¬ 
ly do, there is great danger that wheat sown on such 
lands will freeze out or winter kill, as it is termed; and 
examination will show there are very few farms or 
fields where wheat is sown, where more or less plants 
are not destroyed by this cause. The destruction is usu¬ 
ally performed in the spring months, when the ground 
is bare, and freezes at night after thawing during the 
day. Wheat has two sets of roots, one of which springs 
immediately from the kernel sown, and is generally 
some three or four inches beneath the surface; the oth¬ 
er springs from the stein immediately at the surface of 
the ground, and spreads nearer the surface than 
the set below. A stiff wiry stem connects the two sets. 
When the frost is out of the earth, all these roots are 
free, and the plant may he drawn entire from the earth. 
When the surface only is thawed, the lower set of roots 
remain firm, and cannot he moved except by breaking. 
When the surface thaws during the day. it becomes 
saturated with water, and this freezing at night, ex¬ 
pands and lifts the upper set of roots. It this process 
is repeated for several nights and days in succession, 
the result is that the connecting stem is broken, and the 
upper roots are exposed on the surface to a tempera¬ 
ture that destroys them. Where a soil is friable, or is 
not naturally retentive of water, or has this defect cu¬ 
red by thorough draining, this separation of the roots 
cannot take place, and if the lower set ol roots should 
be started at all, they are hardly ever raised so far as to 
cause the death of the plant. There are very few soils 
where this evil exists which may not be cured by drain¬ 
ing and subsoil plowing, and as it is one that seriously 
lessens the amount of crops, and the profits of the far¬ 
mer, it deserves the consideration of all. 
Capacity of the Stomach. —It is well known there 
are some animals possessed of the power of swallow¬ 
ing a sufficient quantity of food at once to last for a long 
time, a precaution rendered necessary by their preca¬ 
rious life ; hut that men were capable of such a disten¬ 
tion of the stomach has been hut lately proved. Ad-' 
miral Saritckef asserts that a Yakutks in his company 
would consume in twenty-four hours a quarter of a large 
Siberian ox, twenty pounds of fat, and a quantity of 
melted butter for his drinks. Once in his presence and 
in the way of a lunch, after an enormous breakfast, he 
swallowed twenty-eight pounds of thick rice porridge, 
with three pounds of butter. Capt. Cochran asserts he 
has repeatedly seen one of his Tongouse attendants de¬ 
vour forty-eight pounds of meat in a day, and that 
three of them would consume a rein-deer at a meal. 
