130 
THE CULTIVATOR 
forward the calves can be reared with the least trouble and 
expense, and the cow is in season for the profit of the dairy. 
Young cows should be milked to near tne time of calving, 
that they may the better hold out for milk, as they advance in 
years ; if allowed to dry up their milk early the first season, it 
will be quite unavoidable after,—but some regard should be 
had to the keep; those that have good keep may be milked 
to a much later period without injury, than those under the 
contrary circumstances. In twin calves, one being a bull 
and the other a heifer, the latter frequently has not the organs 
of generation, and I have known of cases where they both 
broke to the yoke together; the heifer being equal to the 
steer for strength and labor. They seem to partake more of 
the nature and form of the ox than of the cow. 
In regard to the cattle of our own State, more particularly 
the western part, they are not less numerous in their varieties 
than those of foreign kinds. We have excellent native breeds, 
but that regard for the improvement of neat cattle has not 
been bestowed on them that has been in some of the other 
States, and not as much as would have been profitable to the 
S azier. But more attention has been of late bestowed on 
e breeding; rearing, and providing such sorts as are 
best suited to the nature of the farm or land on which they 
are to be supported. Those fine cattle which are found at 
the Brighton Market, called the “Lake Cattle,” are reared in 
this section of the State. SOLOMON W. JEWETT. 
Weybridge, Vt., Feb., 1841. 
Draining;. 
Messrs. Gaylord & Tucker—1 submit to your consideration, 
some of my views upon a subject which has been extensively 
examined in England and on the continent of Europe. Their 
views, however, have been adopted with reference to a state of 
things with them,—such as the price of land, labor, redundan¬ 
cy of capital, and many other considerations; differing so es¬ 
sentially from ours, that their adoption, to their full extent, in 
this country, may be considered of doubtful utility. 
I have desired to see this subject thoroughly investigated, 
with particular reference to our own condition; but if it has 
been done, it has not fallen under my observation. With these 
views, therefore, if my suggestions shall be found to vary 
somewhat from standard English authority, I beg that it may 
be considered as emanating from a desire, rather to suggest in¬ 
quiries for those better able than myself, to examine the sub¬ 
ject in this light, than from any spirit of controversy with sys¬ 
tems which are probably well adapted to the state of things in 
Europe. 
Two questions are necessarily involved in the subject:— 
First, its utility—secondly, the mode of effecting it. To do jus¬ 
tice to either, it will be necessary to understand the different 
conditions in which water is found, and the manner in which it 
affects the soil. So far as my observation has extended, it 
may, with sufficient accuracy, be classed under the four fol¬ 
lowing heads : 
First —What is usually termed “ surface water.” Under this 
term I include both standing water and running streams, when 
their source is beyond the premises affected, as the mode of 
removing either is nearly the same, although they may and 
generally do affect vegetation very differently in many respects. 
Secondly— Subterraneous ponds. These differ but little from 
those above the surface, except that they are filled with porous 
earth or a sufficient quantity of it to allow of a circulation of 
the water to every part of the bason. These subterraneous 
collections of water are evidently held in their position, by the 
same means as surface ones; an impervious under strata; 
and like them, rise and fall with the wet and dry seasons. 
Thirdly —Springs. This term has commonly been used to in¬ 
dicate the point where a subterraneous stream breaks out upon 
the surface ; but I use it in a more extended sense, as including 
all well defined subterraneous streams. There are some re¬ 
spects in which these differ from surface ones, having a serious 
bearing on the vegetable kingdom. They have their immediate 
source at a considerable depth in the earth, from whence the 
water arrives, uninfluenced by the air, the sun, or any of the 
causes which fertilize the surface. 
Fourthly —For the want of any more definite term to indicate 
the remaining condition in which water appears to the farmer, 
1 shall call it a leach. Water is frequently found sluggishly 
leaching out upon sloping lands without any defined channel. 
These leaches are frequently of great extent and depth. This 
is the worst condition in which water is found, whether we con¬ 
sider the extent of its injury, or the draft which it makes upon 
the intelligence and patience of the ditcher. Like springs, they 
have their immediate source below the influence of the air or 
surface heat. 
This classification will enable us to look more accurately at 
some of the operations of water upon soil; how it affects its 
vegetating powers ; what influence it exercises upon the atmos¬ 
phere, and through that upon vegetable life; and what direct 
influence it exercises upon vegetation, and thus enable us to 
decide upon the utility of draining. 
I am aware that I cannot go into any extended analysis of 
these propositions, without intruding upon the rights of others, 
equally entitled to your hearing. I will confine myself, there¬ 
fore, to a single case, and that by way of illustration, of fre¬ 
quent occurrence among good farmers,—a piece of land, which 
is too wet for early plowing, but from the surface of which the 
water will retire so that the crop may be sown in 11 pretty good 
season,” to use a common expression. Now suppose this field 
to be affected by a leach, as is frequently the case with such 
lands. It will be seen that this soil up to the time of putting in 
the crop, or about that time, has received little or no benefit 
from the influence of spring. The water coming from a source 
below its influence, and mixing freely with the soil, retains it 
at its own temperature, and at a point below that at which the 
elaboratory of nature commences its process of preparing the 
manure, or fertilizing qualities of the soil, to produce vegeta¬ 
tion, and after all it must be noted, that the water receding 
more slowly as it disappears from the surface, and the more 
active meah? of evaporation, probably remains but a short dis¬ 
tance below the surface at seed time, and continues its influ¬ 
ence upon it. But be this as it may, the soil is wet, and at a 
low temperature, a number of days later than on a dry soil, 
other things being equal. On these few days, in a climate like 
ours, frequently depends the crop, or at least a good share of 
its value. It must be borne in mind, that the water which has 
only ebbed during the dry season, rises again as this season ter¬ 
minates, chilling the surface, and reducing its temperature, 
some days before the eye detects its presence; thus preparing 
it for an early frost, which the dry and warmer soil escapes. 
Here we find a solution to the inquiry, why some pieces of land 
are more subject to frost, in spring and fall, than others. We 
frequently find a valley or low piece of ground covered with a 
deep, rich mold, but no crop can be raised on it, because it is 
so inert, or it is so frosty. Is not the above solution of the diffi¬ 
culty satisfactory? Can any other be given? The inquiry 
may be made, why these frosty pieces have such a depth of 
vegetable mold, while warmer ones equally low are destitute 
of it ? The late and early cold water has always affected it; 
and the leaves and grass falling on it, or which have been 
blown on to it, have been retained there by its moisture. This 
moisture and low temperature consequent thereon, has retain¬ 
ed them in an inert a.nd imperfectly decomposed condition, un¬ 
til the present quantity has accumulated. But the man who 
waits for the water to dry off from his land, to put in his late 
crop, may object to my view of the subject, that after all, his 
crops are as good, or nearly so, as those grown on dry and 
earlier ground. This may be, and frequently is the case; but 
it will be seen, that it fortifies one of my points, and does not 
militate against my theory. These moist lands, from the cause 
above assigned, have frequently a much greater amount of un¬ 
expended vegetable matter, than any others; indeed, a fertility 
sufficient to overcome, to a considerable extent, the difficulties 
which I have enumerated, and if properly drained, would be 
ranked with our most fertile and certain lands. Look at this 
subject in connection with the application of manure. If the 
soil is wet and leachy, it is certain to carry off a portion of its 
strength, with the superabundant water, and what is left, the 
coarser part from its low temperature, is comparatively inert 
and useless, at least in the early part of spring. 
As I intend to confine myself rather to the theory of this sub¬ 
ject, with barely sufficient illustration to be understood, I will 
restrict my remaining remarks, to the mode of draining. This 
depends on so many local circumstances ; for instance, under 
which of the above heads is the water to be classed ? What is 
the character of the soil? What is the slope of the land? 
What is its elevation above the lowest point at which it can be 
discharged? that I shall content myself with a few rules appli¬ 
cable to most cases. My first general rule is, do all you can by 
a single ditch. One properly located, and of sufficient width 
and depth, will generally supersede the necessity of many 
smaller ones, will be more economical, and will generally be 
decidedly more efficient and durable. My second general rule 
is, make an open ditch. So far as my experience has extended, 
it costs more to cover a ditch, so that it shall be permanent, 
than it does to dig it. Here is a saving of one-half of the ex¬ 
pense, supposing them both to be dug by hand, which should 
be done, where they are to be covered. The ditch which I re¬ 
commend, can be done almost entirely with the plow and 
scraper, and at an expense not exceeding one-half of what it 
would cost, to do the same with a shovel; and if the earth is 
soft and wet, it will make more difference. If the plow and 
scraper are used, the common farm help can generally do it: 
these men are seldom willing to do much with a shovel and 
pick axe, in a ditch. The ditch will not look quite as smooth 
when first finished with the scrapre, but in the end it will look 
better, as you will have a better slope, the earth will be re¬ 
moved to a more secure distance from the edge, and if there 
are any holes, or inequalities near, they can be filled up, or 
smoothed down. Where these ditches can be so located as to 
form the boundaries of fields, it should be done, even at the ex¬ 
pense of a small crook in the fence. This commonly furnishes 
the best of water on both sides. Its banks furnish a dry and 
advantageous location for a fence; cattle are not as apt to 
press on it, as when approachable on both sides, and it is usu¬ 
ally located where different soils divide, fitted for the different 
purposes of tillage or grass. There are other considerations 
of still greater weight, in my mind, in favor of this course. All 
subterraneous water, except what falls under my definition of 
a leach, has a well defined strata of porous earth, such as sand, 
or gravel, through which it percolates, resting on a hard strata, 
impervious to water. This porous strata is at different depths, 
and is covered with every variety of earth. In swamps, its im¬ 
mediate covering is usually clay, or a hard cement of clay and 
sand, or gravel, and sometimes both. This is generally cover¬ 
ed with a vegetable deposit, and sometimes to the depth of a 
number of feet. The porous strata never extends beyond the 
lower edge of the swamp; if it did, it would drain it. The 
head, or source of this strata is more elevated than the highest 
water in the swamp; the clay, or hard pan, which covers this 
strata under the swamp, is full of holes ; the result of the ac¬ 
tion of water, roots of trees, or other causes, through which 
the water is forced up by its more elevated head, and presents 
itself upon the surface in the numerous springs with which such 
lands abound; to maintain an obstinate and successful defence 
against all the efforts of the farmer, with his innumerable small 
drains and ditches covered with turf, straw, or something else, 
which, in four cases out of five, in the end, go over to the ene¬ 
my, and render his last state worse than the first; whilst the 
courage of the farmer lies buried with his outlay, until he is 
again reminded of his defeat, by a proposition to under-drain 
his swamp. I grant that cases may occur where this mode of 
doing business is the only resort. The situation of the land 
may be such, possibly, that this is the only remedy; but I 
would remark that, except in the case of small pieces, to im¬ 
prove the looks of otherwise valuable tracts; if land cannot 
be otherwise reclaimed, I doubt much whether the advantage 
to be gained will justify the expense, in this country, although 
it may be different in England. If a piece of ground is to be 
drained by a single ditch; the location and depth of the porous 
strata must be ascertained; the ditch should then be com¬ 
menced, at a point low enough to cut through this strata, as it 
progresses. If the porous strata is thoroughly perforated, the 
result must be both effectual and permanent. After this is 
done, the water can no more be forced up to the higher outlet, 
the old spring holes, upon the surface, than it could be to the 
discharge, in a pent stock, after the pump log, or other aqueduct 
was broken off, and for the same reasons. It is not necessary 
that the ditch should be dug as low as the bottom of the porous 
strata, but I would usually prefer it, if not too deep, as a pre¬ 
cautionary measure. The fine earth which, in the process of 
time, has washed down these subterraneous streams, is fre¬ 
quently deposited more in one place than another, and as this 
is continued, a point is shot up the stream and widens; and 
has frequently a small stream under it. This may have pro¬ 
jected itself above where the ditch crosses, and must be so, if 
any spring continues to discharge. The remedy is plain. The 
vein must be tapped, and this would be easier and perhaps the 
necessity for it would have been obviated, if the ditch had been 
dug to the bottom of the strata. If the porous strata should be 
found at such a depth that no outlet can be adopted, low enough 
to drain it, or if the depth should be such that the expense 
would prevent setting the ditch to its level, the water may be 
reached by sinking wells from the bottom of the ditch, to the 
region of it. The uncertainty, however, of opening all of the 
veins by this process, is such, that it should not be adopted, 
except in extreme cases. The ditch should usually be carried 
along the upper side of the land to be drained, or the side on 
which the water approaches it. One main reason is, that the 
porous strata will be found easier, and better defined here; 
but there may be cases, where, from the want of fall, the depth 
of the porous strata, or the depth of intermediate excavation, 
the width of the swamp, or other causes, an intermediate 
course may be adopted. If the porous strata is effectually per¬ 
forated, the water will discharge itself through the lower arti¬ 
ficial orifice, before it would force itself to the higher level, to 
supply the old discharge. I have known a ditch thus situated, 
to draw off water that stood upon the surface. some distance 
above it. There is danger, however, in adopting these lower 
locations, that a branch of the porous strata may not extend 
as low as the ditch, and thus not be perforated. 
Where what I have termed a leach occurs, a resort to a num¬ 
ber of parallel under-drains may be proper, if the situation of 
the land will justify the outlay. If, however, the slope is mo¬ 
derate, I would still adhere to the other system. It is true, 
that it might not be convenient to cut a ditch to the bottom of 
the leach, yet it would probably cut off the water from all the 
land above a level extending out from the bottom of the ditch 
to the surface, where, if necessary, a second may be cut. If 
the quantity that could in this way be reclaimed would not 
justify the expense, I doubt whether any other course could be 
adopted, with hope of better success. 
I would make the additional remark, that unless the earth 
above the porous strata is cut through, the ditch of whatever 
depth, will only operate as a surface drain. I have seen fre¬ 
quent instances, where an individual having determined to 
make thorough work, has cut a deep and expensive ditch across 
a field of clay, or other impervious under strata, which only 
operated as a surface drain, and when one of a few inches in 
depth, would have been equally beneficial. Had he dug through 
into the porous strata, perhaps but a few inches lower, or what 
is more than probable, had his ditch been properly located, 
with much less depth and expense of excavation, his field 
would have been drained. 
HENRY STEPHENS. 
Cortland Village , Jan. 14 th, 1841. 
The Commentator—3>To. 1. 
Messrs. Gaylord & Tucker —I have often thought that it 
might be beneficial to the cause of Agriculture, if some of your 
most experienced correspondents would undertake to offer a 
brief, but free and impartial commentary on each number of 
your paper, by which the attention of your numerous readers 
should be particularly invited to such communications as ap¬ 
peared most deserving of notice, either for the Useful informa¬ 
tion they contained, or for such statements as might seem 
rather calculated to produce erroneous opinions and practices 
in husbandry. These comments,—if they answered no other 
purpose, would probably elicit a further discussion of all doubt¬ 
ful matters, than would otherwise be made in the Cultivator • 
and would tend also, to settle many agricultural controversies 
that appear to be endless. 
Under these impressions I now send you a specimen of such 
a commentary as I have suggested; not, by any means as a 
model, but by way of temptation, or inducement to others to 
undertake it, who are better qualified for the office than myself. 
It will be made on various articles in your June number, and 
will be continued on each succeeding paper,—provided you and 
your readers should appear to approve of the attempt, and no 
other person will make it. 
The first article on which I will offer a remark, is the late 
patriotic act of the New-York legislature, appropriating $8,000 
annually, for five years, tow'ards promoting the husbandry of 
that great and prosperous state. This measure highly merits 
the praise of all true friends to the agriculture of the United 
States; and affords an example of such wise and beneficent 
legislation as is well worthy of imitation by every other state 
in the Union. Husbandry, which is the all-bounteous nursing 
mother of every trade, profession, and calling in our whole 
country; in fact, the sine qua non of all national prosperity, 
has heretofore been most shamefully neglected by the guardians 
of our public interests, both state and federal. It is therefore 
high time that such neglect should be punished by the people 
themselves discarding from their service all who have made 
no better use of the high trusts confided to them. 
If J. R. of Sing Sing, will take the trouble to refer to the first 
volume of Count Rumford’s Essays, (Americaffedition,) he will 
find the subject of “fire-places and chimneys,” most amply 
discussed and explained “ on philosophical principles.” 
I beg leave to dissent, although most respectfully, from a 
part of your answer to Hugh Gaston’s inquiries relative to 
cedar hedges, as I live in a part of the United States where 
more attempts probably have been made to raise them, than in 
any other equal portion of our Union. You are wrong in say¬ 
ing that “ the center or leading shoot should not be disturbed.” 
for in that case, the cedars would attain their natural height 
of some forty or fifty feet, before they would stop growing up¬ 
wards. But it is true of the cedar, and I presume of other 
hedge plants which have a center stem, that it should not be 
cut until the hedge reaches near or quite to the height at which 
it is intended to keep it; otherwise these stems will not have 
sufficient strength. There is, however, an insuperable objec¬ 
tion to the cedar for live hedges,—at least, in all those parts of 
our country wherein I have seen it tried. It is subject to more 
diseases, which have heretofore been found to be incurable, 
than any other plant yet tried among us. But is it not well 
worth inquiry, whether any kind of live hedges are adapted to 
our country, as a general system of enclosure, so long as the 
laws of descent remain as they are ? These cause continual 
changes in the size and form of farms almost every time that 
any of the proprietors die. And of course a corresponding 
change in the fences becomes necessary. 
The inquiry of P. E. P. of Charlotte, Yt. relative to rotation 
of crops, suggests the following. Has any of your correspond¬ 
ents ever tried Indian corn with clover sown among it immedi¬ 
ately after its last working? This to be cut and fed, or made 
into hay the next summer, and fallowed in the fall for wheat. 
The rotation would then be corn, clover, wheat, with only 
three fields and a standing pasture. 
The inquiry of D. G. M. of Springport, relative to the opinion 
that “land may be made too fine for profitable cultivation,” 
has at least one strong fact to support it, although I do not con¬ 
sider it conclusive. Every cultivator of a stiff soil must have 
observed, that it will have a very hard crust formed over it, after 
a hard rain, much sooner, if it be finely pulverized, than when 
it is in a rougher state, and will require an earlier working. 
In speaking of millet, neither your subscriber at Killingly, 
Ct., nor yourselves have specified the kind of which you speak, 
although there are at least four varieties which I have seen 
tried in one of the middle states. But I presume you mean the 
white, or rather pale straw color, as it is the only kind usually- 
sown broadcast. Of this I can say, that it requires very rich 
land, and is a great exhauster. 
The article headed “Kentucky corn crops,” will elicit, we 
hope, a more particular statement relative to the crop of 
Messrs. Bryan and Young; for to say the least of it, we can¬ 
not apply to it, as at present informed, any other than the fa¬ 
vorite epithet of Dominie Sampson,—“ Prodigious !” 
Suffer me to make two remarks on your article headed “ Work 
for the month.” More than two plants left “in melon or cu¬ 
cumber hills,” will not do so well in latitude about 38. And 
as for strawberries, some of our best gardeners have found 
that nothing is better between the rows, than a thick coat of 
chips nearly rotten. Cabbages in our climate, (say 38,) are 
apt to rot in the head, if planted out sooner than about the 
middle of July. 
Among your things “ Not to be done,” I wish you could have 
added the following :—Not to borrow plantation tools or imple¬ 
ments, and keep them until the owner himself is obliged to send 
for them, instead of having them returned to him by the bor¬ 
rower. 
Not to spend our time in riding about and criticising our 
neighbors’ farms, to the neglect of our own. 
On the subject of “calcined gypsum,” it will probably be 
gratifying to your correspondent L. B. of Hartford, Ct. and 
others, to know that it has been very successfully tried, both 
in Virginia and South Carolina : on clover in the first state, 
and on orchard grass in the second. See the third volume of 
the Farmers’ Register, by Edmund Ruffin ? of Petersburg, Va. 
Calcination saves the expense of grinding the gypsum, as 
pestles will pulverize it. 
One of your articles is headed “Hawthorn hedges of Eng¬ 
land,” and the writer who signs himself R. M. seems to recom¬ 
mend the hawthorn for this country. To him and others I re¬ 
spectfully offer the following information:—Some 30 odd years 
ago, a Scotchman by the name of Main, (as well as I recollect,) 
established a nursery above Georgetown, in the district of Co- 
